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Engineering Property
True Stress-Strain
Property
Elastic
Constants
Elastic modulus, E
Poisson's ratio,
Strength
Proportional limit, p
Yield strength, y
Ultimate tensile strength,
Engineering fracture strength,
Ductility
True toughness, u
Strain hardening
exponent, n
Modulus of Elasticity
The slope of the initial portion of the stress-strain curve is
the modulus of elasticity, or Youngs Modulus. The
modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of the
material. It is an important design value.
The modulus of elasticity is determined by the building
forces between atoms. It is only slightly affected by
alloying.
Measures of Yielding
Yielding defines the point at which plastic deformation begins.
This point may be difficult to determine in some materials, which
have gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior. Therefore,
various criteria (depends on the sensitivity of the strain
measurements) are used to define yielding.
1. Proportional Limit - This is the highest stress at which stress is
directly proportional to strain.
2. Elastic Limit - This is the greatest stress the material can
withstand without any measurable permanent strain remaining on
the complete release of the load.
3. Yield Strength - This is the stress required to produce a small
(0.2% strain) specified amount of plastic deformation.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 1-13. (a) Typical stress-strain (type II) behavior for a metal showing
elastic and plastic deformations, the proportional limit P, and the yield
strength y, as determined using the 0.002 strain offset method.
(b) Representative stress-strain (type IV) behavior found for some steels
demonstrating the yield drop (point) phenomenon.
Poissons Ratio
If the applied stress is uniaxial (only in the z direction), then x = y .
A parameter termed Poissons ratio v is defined as the ratio of the
lateral and axial strains, or
y
x
v
z
z
(1.8)
z
Figure 1-14.
l l lo
z
l
lo
d
d do
z
do
do
(1.9)
(1.10)
Measures of Ductility
Ductility is a qualitative, subjective property of a material. It
usually indicates the extent to which a metal can be deformed
without fracture.
Two methods one can obtain ductility from tension test are:
- the engineering strain at fracture, ef, known as elongation
where
L f Lo
(1.11)
ef
Lo
Ao
(1.12)
Toughness
The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy in the
plastic range. This property is particular desirable in parts such
as freight car couplings, gears, chains, and crane hooks.
One way of looking at toughness is to consider it as the total
area under the stress- strain curve. This area is an indication of
the amount of work per unit volume which can be done on the
material without causing it to rupture.
Figure 1-15 shows the stress strain curve for high and low
toughness materials.
The area under the curve for ductile metals (stress-strain curve is
like that of the structural steel) can be approximated by either of
the following equations:
(1.13)
U T su e f
or
so su
UT
ef
2
(1.14)
The area under the curve for brittle materials (stress-strain curve
is sometimes assumed to be a parabola) can be given by:
2
U T su e f
3
(1.15)
All these relations are only approximately to the area under the
stress-strain curve.
Resilience
The ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed
elastically is called resilience. Otherwise called modulus of
resilience, it is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress
the material from zero stress to the yield stress o. The strain
energy per unit volume for uniaxial tension is
1
U o x ex
2
(1.16)
1
1 so so
U R so eo so
2
2 E 2E
(1.17)
Resilience Continued. . .
The value can be obtained by integrating over the area under the
curve up to the yield point, and this is given as:
Ur
de
(1.18a)
(1.18b)
2
1
1 y y
U r y e y y
2
2 E 2E
(1.19)
(e 1) s (e 1)
A
o
(1.20)
P
A
(1.21)
ln(e 1)
(1.22)
2
ln
A
( pi / 4) D 2
D
(1.23)
Instability in Tension
Necking or localized deformation begins at maximum load, where
the increase in stress due to decrease in the cross-sectional area of
the specimen becomes greater than the increase in the load-carrying
ability of the metal due to strain hardening. This conditions of
instability leading to localized deformation is defined by the
condition dP = 0.
P A
dP dA Ad 0
(1.24)
dL
dA
d
L
A
(1.25)
dA d
(1.26a)
(1.26b)
( L e)
d de d de dL / L
de
d
d
1 e
(1.27)
Ao Lo
L
1
Lo
A
P Ao
Ao
1 e
e
A P
A
1 e e
(1.28)
dL
(1.29)
L
L
dL
L
ln
L
Lo
(1.30)
exp
Lo
(1.31)
On substituting, we get
P
exp
Ao
(1.32)
and
Pmax
Au
Pmax
Ao
Ao
u ln
Au
Ao
u su
Au
and
u su e
(1.29)
f ln
Ao
Af
(1.30)
1
ln
1 q
(1.31)