Courtesy of Khairul Saleh

1. Introduction
These include:
Amplifiers for amplifying the transducer output.
which may be small.
Filters, for filtering out unwanted portions of the
signal.
AD/DA converters, for converting analog type
signals to digital form

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2. Amplifier

Amplifiers are intermediate elements that

increase the magnitude of the signal from a
transducer so that it can be conveniently
displayed or recorded. These may be of
mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, optical or
eletricallelectronic types, depending on the type
of transducer. In cases where a reduction is
needed in the magnitude of the signal from the
transducers, these are called attenuators.

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2.1. Mechanical Amplifier

show a lever mechanism that is a typical
Element

mechanical amplifier. As seen from the figure,

the output signal Xo is given by:

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2. 2. Hydroulic Amplifying
Element
shows a typical hydraulic type element, in which
the output signal X, is given by

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2. 3. Pneumatic Amplifying
Elemet

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2. 4. Optical Amplifying
A ray of light gets deflected by 2 from a mirror attached to the moving
Element
member and the distance X0 moved by the light spot on the scale is given

by

where R is the distance between the scale and the mirror. By proper
choice of the distance R. X0 can be made as large as desired.

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2. 5. Electrical Amplifying
Element
Currently, most of the electrical amplifiers are either transistor based or
employ suitable integrated circuits (ICs) or both Vacuum tubes have
now become obsolete and are employed in certain special applications
only. Presently a wide variety of amplifiers are available to meet the
specific requirements in the signal conditioning element of the
instrument systems. The following are the characteristics of an ideal
amphfer i.e. it should have:
(i) infinite input impedance, i.e. it should have no loading effect on the
transducer.
(ii) zero output impedance
(iii) a very large gain (theoretically infinite) to improve resolution
(iv) zero output for zero input
(v) ability to filter spurious inputs
(vi) instant response.

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3. Operational Amplifiers
Operational Amplifier - An operational amplifier
(op amp) is a high gain differential amplifier with
nearly ideal external characteristics. Internally the
op amp is constructed using many transistors.
Terminology:
V+ = non-inverting input voltage
V- = inverting input voltage
Vo = output voltage
Io = output current
I+ = non-inverting input current
I- = inverting input current
VDC = positive and negative DC
supply voltages used to power
the op amp (typically 5V to
30V)
V = V+ - V- = difference voltage

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The Op-Amp Symbol

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Internal Model of a Real OpAmp

Zin is the input impedance (very large 2 M)

Zout is the output impedance (very small 75 )
Aol is the open-loop gain
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Op-Amps

Nearly ideal

An operational amplifier has a very high input impedance and

a very high gain.
High gain: up to 105-106
High input impedance: 4M
Low output impedance: 500
Stable

Op-Amp is short for operational amplifier.

An operational amplifier is modeled as a voltage
controlled voltage source.
The exact gain is often unpredictable.

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3.1 Inverting Amplifier

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3.2 Non-inverting Amplifier

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3.3 Differential (or Difference)

Amplifier

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3.4 Voltage follower

This is simply a noninverting amplifier
with Rg= and Rf = 0

This unity gain amplifier is sometimes used as

an input buffer as it has very high input
impedance and low output impedance
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3.5 Summing amplifier

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3.6 Integrator

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Integrator
Since the inverting input is at virtual ground

Applying Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) at the inverting input

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3.7 Differentiator

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Differentiator
Since the inverting input is at virtual ground

Applying KCL at the inverting input

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3.8 Instrumentation Amplifier

Main aim is to improve the input impedance while
maintaining a good common mode rejection

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APPLICATION: Interfacing Strain

Gauges in a Bridge Circuit

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4. Filter
Macam-macam Filter
Low-pass Filters (Tapis Lolos Rendah)
High-pass Filters (Tapis Lolos Tinggi)
Band-pass Filters (Tapis Lolos Pita)
Band-stop Filters (Tapis Sekat Pita)

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Filters: Intuitive Understanding

Impedance:

Transfer Function:

Low-pass filters:

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Filters: Intuitive Understanding

Low-pass filters:

At low frequency:

At high frequency:

Dimensionless Frequency:
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Filters: Intuitive Understanding

High-pass filters:

At low frequency:

At high frequency:

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Filters: Intuitive Understanding

Band-pass or Band-stop Filters:

Low-pass

High-pass

High-pass

Low-pass

High-pass

Low-pass

}
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Filters: Intuitive Understanding

Band-pass or Band-stop Filters:

Low-pass

High-pass

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Band-pass

Band-stop

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Complex Frequency and Laplace Transform

Phasor and Impedance

What if

Define complex frequency

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Transfer Function

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Filters: Intuitive Understanding

Active filters:

Low pass filter

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Transfer Function
Active Band-pass or Band-stop Filters:

High-pass

Low-pass

}
Transfer Function? Quiz
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High Order Filters

Filter order ? Determined by the or of the
Denominator of the transfer function

Cascade Connections

Loading

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Band Pass Filter

Transfer Function

Center Frequency?

What if the transfer function is described as

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5. ADC dan DAC

ADC : A/D Converter ; Analog to Digital

Converters : Pengubah besaran /kuantitas/ sinyal
analog (sinyal kontinue) menjadi sinyal digital
(sinyal diskrit).
DAC : D/A Converter ; Digital to Analog Converter
: Pengubah besaran / sinyal digital menjadi
sinyal Analog.

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5.1 Binary-Weighed D/A

Converters

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5.2. R/2R Ladder D/A

Converters

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5.3 Integreted-Circuit D/A

Converters

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IC D/A C MC1408

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5.4. Parallel-Encoded A/D

Converters

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5.5. Counter-Ramp A/D

Converters

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5.6. Successive-Approximation
A/D C

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5.7. Integrated-Circuit A/D

Converters

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IC ADC 0804

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Data Acquisition System

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Sumber

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