Time Management.

You can carry

out your job as a college student
either efficiently or inefficiently,
depending on your habit patterns of
using or wasting time. The best
technique for developing efficient
habits of time use is to prepare a time
list that combines long-range and
short-range planning: (1) a long-term
schedule for an entire semester , (2)
an intermediate schedule per wek,
and (30 a more specific short

Long-term Schedule a list of fixed

commitment you are required to meet
every week during the semester,e.g.,
classes, job hours, organization meetings
church, etc.
Intermediate Schedule (one per week) a
short list of major events and amount of
work to be completed in each subject,
including nonstudy activities. Prepare a new
list for each week every Sunday night. List
day first. Post the list on a wall in your
bedroom.
Short-term Schedule (one per day) a list
of specific things to be done
Write your schedule for the next day before

Study Area. A good study

area is any quiet place with
adequate lighting where you
can study without anyone
bothering you. Have a study
desk with a chair that
supports your back. Never try
to study on your bed,
because that invites you to
longue and eventually fall to

Reading. The way you read

while studying Is not like
reading for pleasure. You can
make your study reading more
effective by using the PSQ5R
method (Study Skills ). Stands
for Purpose, Survey, Question,
Read selectively, Recite, Rite,
Reflect, and Review.

Purpose: Before starting to read,

determine your intention for
reading the material. Are you
looking of general concepts or
specific information? What does
your instructor want you to do?
Survey; Have a quick scan of the
whole material, taking note of
chapter headings, topics, and
subtopics. This valuable way to
save time, as you can focus on the

Question. Decide on the

questions that you have to
answer. This allows you to
actively search for answers
to particular problems and
ration your time per problem
while reading.

The 5 Rs: After the following

the above advice on PSQ, you
are now ready to read
selectively with the purpose
and questions in mind
mentally recite what you learn
to ascertain that you
remember it; write down what
you learn from your reading in

then reflect or think about

what you have read and
decide whether or not your
questions have been
answered; and finally,
review your notes within 24
hours to ensure that you
remember what you have
learned.

Writing. Effective writing is quality

writing. To achieve this, analyze your
writing for two characteristics: content
and form. In other words, what you say
and how you say it. Writing without
form is like a human body without
skeleton; writing without content is like
a skeleton with no flesh. The writing
process consists of the following steps
prewriting, organizing, and writing,
revising, editing, and writing the final
draft after several revisions.

Prewriting is brainstorming. Its

purpose is to create as many ideas
related to the subject as possible,
and as quickly as possible.
Examples of brainstorming are
listing, fast writing, spidering, and
mapping.
Organizing is selecting an opinion
about the subject, choosing enough
of the right type of detail from the
prewrite and adding when needed,
and creating an order for those

Writing is simply following the shaping

of the form and putting the fragments of
ideas into complete sentences, and
adding when needed.
Revising is adding and deleting
information, changing the order of the
details and the form, and looking for
major mechanical errors.
Editing is checking the writing for basic
writing errors like spelling, punctuation,
and grammar.
After several revision you are finally

Note Taking. To take good notes,

think of note taking as an active
listening process and be selective
in what your write down. Before
the lecture, read the assigned
material or skim it for five to ten
minutes so that you can identify
the most relevant information from
the lecture.

During the lecture, watch for cues from

the instructor as to what information is
most relevant. Organize the material
with headings. If there are gaps in your
notes, dont hesitate to stop instructor
and ask questions. Dont write down
every word the instructor says, but you
should copy any information he puts on
the blackboard or overheads. Develop
one set of abbreviations for use in note
taking and one way of identifying key

Concentration. Like any other

student, you may not be able to
concentrate while studying nor
remember the material that you
studied. To improve your
concentration and memory, try
these techniques.

Arrange what you are going to

study in order of relation
importance.
Break your study time into
manageable periods of time.
Schedule a regular break.
Deal with your anxiesties by using
relaxation techniques like shoulder
shrug and shoulder rotation,
including something that normally

Avoid distractions by choosing a study

spot that does not strain your eyes or
body, where all the supplies you need
are within easy reach, and which is
where you will only study, not to do
anything else.
Try some techniques to improve your
ability to memorize such as organizing
and summarizing your notes into
essential ideas, using acronyms to
remember a difficult set of concepts
and constantly reciting and reviewing

Test Taking. You can do well in exams

if you know what do you before, during,
and after the test
Before the test
Attend all classes
Complete all required reading.
Organize your study time by planning,
daily. weekly, and major review
sessions.
Form a study group with five or six
other conscientious students to
undertake review activities that include

Create study tools like annotated

and review notes. Predict test
questions. Test yourself, and recite
information aloud. Ask instructor
for specific information about the
test.
Reduce test anxiety by
maintaining a balanced schedule
including exercise and relaxation
techniques, a healthy diet, and

During the Test

Use your time wisely.
Read the directions and questions
carefully.
Know the rules in the test, such as
time limits and penalties for
guessing.
Answer all questions unless there
are penalties for guessing.
Look for clues from other test

After the Test

Which part of the exam was the
easiest? Why?
Which part of the exam was the
hardest? Why?
Which of the activities you completed
prior to the exam was the most helpful?
Did you feel prepared when you walked
into the exam? Why or why not?
How might you study differently for the
next exam for better results?

Do not be discouraged if you cannot

answer a question. Leave it and go on.
You may find the answer or clues to the
answer in subsequent questions.
Beware of the questions with no, and
none. These words easily change the
meaning of questions.
If you have to guess:
Reject answers that use specific
determines such as: everyone, always,
never, etc.
Look for grammatical inconsistencies
which may help eliminate wrong

Choose the longest, most precise

answer.
Choose the answer that is in the
middle.
Choose the answer which uses
qualifying terms such as: often,
most, etc.
Choose the answer that first
caught your eye.

Make a simple outline of what you

will write about.
Be sure to keep track of time.
Spend more time on questions that
are worth more points.
Try to write as neatly as possible
and leave some space for added
ideas or corrections.
Before turning your test in, read
your answers a final time to check
for grammatical errors and

Compare. Examine two or more things. Identify

similarities and differences.
Illustrate. Give concrete examples. Explain
clearly by using comparison or examples.
Contrast. Show differences. Set in opposition.
Interpret. Comment upon, give examples, and
describe relationships. Explain the meaning.
Describe, then evaluate.
Criticize. Make judgments. Evaluate
comparative worth. Criticism often involves
analysis.
Outline. Describe main ideas, characteristics, or
events.
Define. Give the meaning, usually a meaning
specific to the course or subject. Determine the
precise limits of the term to be defined. Explain

Prove. Support with facts (especially

facts presented in class or in the test.)
Describe. Give a detailed account.
Make a picture with words. List
characteristics, qualities, and parts.
Relate. Show the connections between
ideas or events. Provide a larger
context.
Discuss. Consider the debate or argue
the pros and cons of an issue. Write
about similarities, and conflict.
Compare and contrast.

State. Explain precisely.

Summarize. Give a brief,
condensed account. Include
conclusions. Avoid unnecessary
details.
Enumerate. Give your opinion or
cite the opinion of an expert.
Include evidence to support the
evaluation.

Influencing Teachers. How you

communicate with and relate to
your instructor affect how well you
do in a course. The best way to
impress our instructor and get on
his good side is to show genuine
interest in the course material and
ask good questions. The following
strategies demonstrate your
interest and curiosity

Dont criticize, condemn, or complain to

the teacher about his performance;
rater, focus on the discussion of the
material and your understanding of this
material.
Let the teacher know what you
appreciate about the course.
Smile.
Know and use the teachers name.
Listen to what the teacher has to say
about himself.
Talk in terms of what the teacher is
interested in.
Let the teacher know that you think he

Avoid arguing, and try honestly to see

the teachers point of view.
If you are wrong, admit it quickly and
emphatically.
Ask questions rather than give orders.
Let the teacher know that you sincerely
want to do well in the course.
Always have the course textbook in
your hand whenever you see the
instructor.
Hand in all assignments on time
throughout the semester.

RECALL: After studying the

material, stop and recite in your
own wor4ds all that you have
learned.
DIGEST: Go back to what you did
not understand and reconsider the
information. Contact external
expert sources.

EXPAND: Ask three kinds of questions

concerning the studied material.
If I can speak to the author, what
questions will I ask or what criticism
would I offer?
How can I apply this material to what I
am interested in?
How can I make this information
interesting and understandable to other
students?
REVIEW: Go over the material youve
covered. Review what strategies helped

Thinking Skills
In todays information age, we all need
thinking skills to cope with a rapidly
changing world. Specific Knowledge is
not as important as the ability to learn
and make sense of new information.
Thinking skills refer to the set of basic
and advanced skills and sub skills that
govern a persons mental processes.
These skills comprise knowledge,
disposition, and cognitive and
metacognitive operations.

The prominent educator Benjamin Bloom

developed an instructional model
popularly known as Blooms Taxonomy.
The model categorizes thinking skills
form the concrete to the abstract
knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, evaluation. The last
three are considered higher order skills.
Blooms Taxonomy, which is shown in the
table below, presents the following: Six
levels of thinking, skills demonstrated for
each level, and question cues that elicit
responses for each level.

Competence
Level)
Knowledge

(Thinking Skills
Demonstrated
Observation
and recall of
information
Knowledge of
dates, events,
places
of
Mastery
Subject matter
Comprehension
Understanding
information
Grasping
meaning
Translation
knowledge into
new context
Interpreting
facts,
comparing,
contrasting
Ordering,
grouping,
inferring

Question Cues
List, define, tell, describe,
identify,
show,
label,
collect,
examine,
tabulate, quote, name,
who when, where

Summarize,
interpret,
predict,
distinguish,
differentiate,
extend

describe,
contrast,
associate,
estimate,
discuss,

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Using
information
Using
methods,
concept,
theories
in
new situations
Solving
problems
using required
skills
or
knowledge

Apply, demonstrate, calculate,

complete, illustrate, show,
solve,
examine,
modify,
relate,
change,
classify,
experiment, discover

Seeing
patternsa
Organization
of parts
Recognition of
hidden
meanings
Identification
of components
Using old ideas
to create new
ones

Analyze,
separate,
order,
explain,
connect,
classify,
arrange,
divide,
compare,
select, infer

Combine, integrate, modify,

rearrange, substitute, plan,
create,
design,
invent,

Evaluation

Comparing
and
discriminatin
g
between
ideas
Assessing
value
of
theories,
presentation
s
Making
choices
based
on
reasoned
argument
Verifying
value
of
evidence
Recognizing

Asses, decide,
rank,
grade,
test, measure,
recommend,
convince,
select,
judge,
explain
discriminate,
support,
conclude,
compare,
summarize

Unity through the Use of the Topic

Sentence
The topic sentence states the central
idea to be developed. It may be
expressed or implied. If it is expressed, it
is found at the beginning of the
paragraph, at the end of the paragraph,
or anywhere between the first and the
last sentences. When placed at the end
of the paragraph, it serves as the
concluding or clinching sentence. If the
topic sentence is implied, as the

Another feature of the topic

sentence is the controlling idea,
which consists of the keyword/s in
the topic sentence. The keyword/s
may be a part/ parts of the topic
sentence or it may be the whole
sentence. The controlling idea limits
the scope of the topic and helps the
writer to focus on the topic sentence

Sample paragraph
Touch is our most intimate and
powerful means of
communication. A doctor makes
the mother feel her baby to give her
satisfaction after her birth labor. The
mother caresses the newborn to
give the baby a feeling of love and
security that will be the foundation
of the self. A father taps the
shoulder of his son to boost the

A son holds the hands of his dying father

in a final goodbye. A friend embraces
another friend to drive away the latters
loneliness. These tactile stimulations
oftentimes spell a difference.
Topic sentence: Touch is our most
intimate and powerful means of
communication.
Controlling idea (Words that control or
limit the discussion of the topic touch)
intimate, powerful means of

Unity through the Use of

Supporting Details
Supporting details are the sentences
that help develop or expand the main
idea in the topic sentence. These details
that help expand the topic sentence
may be in the form of a description, an
example, a comparison or contrast, a
classification, etc.

Sample Paragraph
Touch is our most intimate and
powerful means of communication.
1. A doctor makes the mother feel her
baby to give her satisfaction after her
birth labor. 2. The mother caresses the
newborn to give the baby a feeling of
love and security that will be the
foundation of the self.3. A father taps
the shoulder of his son to boost the
latters sagging morale after his defeat
in a school contest.

4. A son holds the hands of his dying

father in a final goodbe.5. A friend
embraces another friend to drive away
the latters loneliness. These tactile
stimulations oftentimes spell a
difference.
Topic Sentence: Touch is our most
intimate and powerful means of
communication
Supporting details: Examples or
instances when touch communicates
intimate and powerful messages.

In a coherent paragraph, the reader

easily grasps the meaning of what he
reads because he sees the orderly
sequence of ideas and their relationship
to one another. There are no gaps in
thought. But sometimes, the ideas are
expressed in a jumbled fashion or are
not clearly linked so that the reader fails
to follow the flow of though in the
paragraph. Such a paragraph needs
coherence.
Coherence is achieved by following a
definite order of ideas, also referred to

To add ideas, use and, moreover,

further, furthermore, also, likewise,
similarly, too, in like manner, again,
besides.
To introduce statements opposing the
preceding statements, use but,
nevertheless, otherwise, on the other
hand , conversely, on the contrary,
however, still, yet.
To show time sequence, use then, now
after that , later, eventually, at the
same time, meanwhile, in a few

To indicate order, use next , in the

second place, to begin with, first,
second, finally, in conclusion.
To show space relation, use to the right,
in the distance, straight ahead, up
above.
To indicate a consequence or a
conclusion, use hence, consequently,
thus, so, for this reason, therefore, as a
result.
To indicate repetition of one idea, use
briefly, that is to say, in fact, indeed, in
other words.

Parallel clause structures

Each of us likes to belong to some
groups of tightly knit people
Where we are known and accepted
Where we are committed to each
other
Parallel sentence structures
Give me land.
Land to own.
Land to unbeholden to any tyrant.
Land that will be free.
Give me land for I am starving
Give me land that my children may not

Note the ascending order of

importance:
The Kings of the earth
The great men of the earth
The earth
The sea

Any narrative, whether rit is simple or complex,

has four basic elements: setting, character,
plot and point of view.
The setting denotes the time and place of the
story.
Character refers to the persons who take part
in the narrative. The main character is called
the protagonist while the villain who creates
the problems in the life of the main character is
called the antagonist.
The plot, the series of events of the story
itself, moves toward the climax or highest pint
of interest, and then descends to the
denouement (resolution) and the ending of the
story.

The so-called point of view in a story

is the perspective the writer take sin
telling his story such as:
First person point of view- the writer
tells of his own story.
First person-observer point of view- the
character tells in the first person a story
or event he has seen. This can also be
second person point of view.
Author-observer point of view- the
writer tells very objectively about the
events as they happened to another
individual. This can be referred to as
third person point of view.

The narrative, furthermore, makes use of

signal words or phrases, one type of
verbal bridges.

Example: Sixteen is a prideful age when

a young man needs respect, not charity.
Oned day, I found myself in the General
store making purchases on credit for my
father. I was hesitant because I had seen
friends ask for credit and then stand
heads bowed, as the storeowner
questioned whether they were good for
it. Mr. David, the storeowner, was

O said sheepishly, I need to put

them on credit, Mr. David. The
farmer threw me an amused cynical
look. But Mr. Davids face didnt
change a bit. Sure, he said with a
firm nod of his head. Your daddy
has always been good for it, he
continued to the farmer. This is
one of Mr. Sotero Garcias sons, he
added. I was filled with pride.
Sotero Garcias son! Those words

Plot:
The teenager was asked to purchase
goods on credit.
He approached the storeowner to make
the purchase on credit.
The storeowner agreed to his request.
He was introduced to the farmer as
Sotero Garcias son.
He felt proud being his fathers son.
Point of view- First person point of view.
The teenager narrated his own story
Verbal bridges- signal words one day ,
when, but, because, as the, and

Inferring a reading skill that is done

by making an oinion based on given
facts. Inferences are conclusions drawn
from reading between the lines in
order to get the idea suggested y the
author.
Ex. I need to put this on credit, Mr.
David. While I was waiting for the
answer, the farmer raised an eyebrow,
then threw me an amused cynical look.
But Mr. Davids face didnt change a
abit. Sure, he said a firm nod. He is

Inference:
Sotero Garcias
name was as good
as cash to the
storeowner.
Therefore, he must
have been a very
good debtor in
that store.

Discussing the Characteristics of the

Paragraph (Character Sketch)
A character sketch is a form of
exposition. It seeks to explain or portray the
characteristic/s of an individual or a group
by narrating an incident/s that reveal the
distinctive quality/qualities of the individual
or the group. This discourse is also an
anecdote, except that the point of emphasis
is the character trait/s exemplified by the
incident, not any funny or interesting event.
In the sample paragraph, the focus is on
Herman Steurs kindness and and
generosity

The subject of a character sketch may be an

individual or a group. The individual
character sketch is specific and concrete;
whereas the type or profile character sketch
is general because it presents a trait/s typical
of the group. In sketching his subjects
outstanding characteristics, the writer will
find helful including feautes that disclose
these trait; for instance , his natural
environment. Where does he live or work? Is
the place cluttered or neat and well kept?
Also, the way the subject moves may reveal
his qualities. Does he move slowly but
surely? Spritely but erratically? Furthermore,
his likes and dislikes, hobbies , choice of

Sample Paragraph
The Remarkable Mission of Herman Steur
Herman Steur, a wealthy Dutch businessman,
was sleeping soundly in his beachfront mansion in
Pamunugama Sri Lanka, when his butler jolted him
awake to announce he had visitors a distraught
woman and her four children dressed in ragged
clothes. Her husband, a poor fisherman, had died
and she had neither coffin nor blanket to wrap him
up for th burial. Profoundly touched by the tormented
widow, Steur ordered his butler to give her all the
bed sheets thaty she needed and pressed in to her
hand 1000 rupees (S20). Dont worry about the
funeral expenses, he assured her, I will take care of
that for you. This is Herman Steur, who moved by
his encounter with this hapless woman, has given
generously to countless charities throughout his life.

Analyzing the Structure of the Sample

Paragraph (Character Sketch)```
Setting Herman Steurs beachfront mansion
Characters Herman Steur, the butler, the woman
and her four children
Person Characterized Herman Steur, the rich Dutch
businessman
Character traits portrayed Kindness, generosity,
compassion
Incident that portrayed these traits When the poor
woman askd for bed sheets to wrap her husbands
body for burial, Steur, ddeply touched, gladly helped,
and promised to extend some more aid.
Type of Character individual; only one person is
characterized
Point of view Third person point of view; an
observer tells the story.

Reading Comprehension is
enhanced by ones ability to identify
the time sequence re3lationship of
ideas as indicated by such words as
when, until, while, before, after,
and as. Reading ability may be
improved by understanding
conditional sentences with words
like if, unless, provided,
otherwise.

Discussing the Characteristics of the

Paragraph by Process
The paragraph by process is concerned
with how topics such as how garbage is
turned into compost, how ready-made
dresses are made. It may involve the giving
and receiving of instructions on a certain task
or operation; or it may entail an explanation of
a process too intricate or complicated for the
ordinary reader to perform and bring
completion. To cite an example for each type of
process writing: a paragraph on how to
operate a calculator will include instructions
reader is expected to follow; however, a
paragraph on how to operate laser will

The sample paragraph on greening the Red

planet is an example of the latter type.
Process writing may be used also to explain a
scientific procedure, like how food is
digested, or how the fetus develops in a
mothers womb . Or it may trace a historical
chain of events, as in how the Philippines go
its independence.
Since process, according to Webster, is a
systematic series of actions directed to an
end, process writing requires a logical
presentation of ideas and enough information
to make the paragraph clear and
understandable. The instructions should be
specific, complete, and properly sequenced.

Among the signal words to denote

time sequence are: first, second
third etc., then, later, while, to
begin, to start, at the end,
afterwards, subsequently, lastly,
finally, etc.

Greening the Red Planet

Terraformation the greening of the red planet
would be the most ambitious engineering
project in human history. This feat may be
accomplished in several stages. The challenge
is to warm mars, first by raising the
temperature from -60 degrees to -40 degrees.
One way to begin this is to build chemical
factories, power them with small nuclear
reactors that would pump out green house
gases to cover the planet, and prevent the
escape of heat. Then as the temperature
rises, the atmosphere will become thicker but
not thick enough. Hence an ozone substitute
will be manufactured supplement the

Later, as the planet warms to -15 degrees,

carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water will seep
from the crust. The atmosphere will continue
to thicken and water will pool in canyons.
Soon, Mars will have a breathable atmosphere
when microorganisms will create soil to sustain
plants, and plants will convert the atmospheric
carbon dioxide to oxygen. When the
temperature reaches -5 degrees, the ice will
melt. Bodies of water will be formed and rain
will fall regularly. Trees will be planted,
changing the dry red planet into a moist green
globe. Terrafromartion, one of our prodigious
dreams, may founder. But suppose it could be
done, should it be done?

Analyzing the Sample Paragraph

Unity
Topic Sentence This feat
(terraformation) may be
accomplished in several stages
Controlling idea - several stages
Supporting details Mars will be
war5med first the temperature from
-60 to -40 degrees.
Chemical factors will be built,
powered by small nuclear reactors.

Greenhouse gases pumped out by these

factories will cover the planet and prevent
the escape of heat.
Then as the temperature rises, the
atmosphere will thicken.
The atmosphere will not be thick enough.
An ozone substitute will be manufactured to
supplement the atmosphere.
When the temperature reaches -25 degrees,
tundra vegetation will survive.sd
As the planet warms to -15 degrees, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, and water will seep form
the crust.
The atmosphere will continue to thicken.

Microorganisms will create soil to sustain

plants.
Plants will convert the atmospheres
carbon dioxide to oxygen.
Mars will have a breathable atmosphere.
When the temperature reaches -5
degrees, ice will melt.
Bodies of water will form
Rain will fall regularly. Trees will be
planted, changing the dry red planet into
a moist green globe.

Clinching Sentence But suppose it

Coherence
Logical bridge ( paragraph order) - Chronological or
time order
Verbal bridge (structural order) - Signal words
denoting time: First, then, when, as.
Beside simile, metaphor, and hyperbole, some of the
other figures of speech commonly used are
personification, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony
Personification- Endowing inanimate objects or
abstract ideas with human qualities. Ex. Truth speaks.
Metonymy using a word associated with an object to
represent it. Ex. Are you familiar with Virgil?
Synecdoche Substituting part of an object/idea for
the whole object or idea ex. Respect gray hairs.
Irony Expressing an idea opposite to what is meant.
Ex. To his students without homework, the teacher
remarked, What diligent students you are!


Paragraph by
Description

Description appeals to the five senses:

sense of sight , smell hearing, touch, and
taste. Likewise, it calls on the writers
imagination to recreated the images
presented. So, to be able to describe the
subject clearly and accurately, and
arouse the readers special feelings or
reactions, the writer must possess the
skill to use fresh and specific or concrete
words. Stock phrases and generic terms
like nice and good make up quantity
but do not lend effectiveness to the

The two types of description, according to purpose are

objective and subjective. Objective description,
sometimes called informative scientific or technical,
aims to inform or to identify; hence, it is factual. It is
focused on the physical aspect and appeals to the
intellect. This type of description abounds in
textbooks, guide books, lo-and-found logbooks, and
police records.
Furthermore, since the objective type usually
deals with the description of objects, persons, or
space, it uses the space order. The writer determines
the starting focal pint and then proceeds smoothly
and continuously without interruption for regression to
the right, or vice versa; from near to far or vice versa;
from the top to the bottom, or vice versa; from the
outside to the inside, etc. In effect, the sequence of
the description imitates the movement of the eye of

The other type, subjective

description, also referred to as
artistic aims to give pleasure or to
elicit special feelings or reaction;
hence, it is suggestive and
evocative in language. This type of
description is often employed in
narratives, poetry, and at times in
expository discourses. However,
most paragraphs utilize both the
subjective and the objective types

Sample paragraph
Once Upon a Time in Peggys Cove
Peggys Cove lies along what is known as Lighthouse
Route on Nova Scotias southern coast. Images of this
tiny fishing village come to my mind the charm of
Peggys Cove is in the village itself. Perched on granite
rocks that were left behind by the receding glaciers ten
thousand years ago, it looks picturesque. The rocks have
since been smoothened by the constant lashing of the
waves from the Atlantic Ocean. The stark whiteness of
the rocks makes a striking contrast to the color of the
quaint cottages with roof painted in bright red of varying
shades. Below the rocks , fishing boats that are no less
brightly colored, ply the waters. A little up left, the
Atlantic ocean comes in full view. The water is so placid
that it might as well be name Pacific. Its hue of brilliant
blue seems mysteriously hypnotic. It beckons the
beholder to come closer to the edge and be engulfe3d in

Analyzing the Structure of the

Sample Paragraph
Unity
Topic Sentence the charm of Peggys
Cove in the village itself
Controlling idea charm village
Supporting Details- description of the
village lies along Lighthouse Route tiny
fishing village, picturesque; perched on
granite rocks, stark whiteness of rocks, a
contrast to red. Roofed cottages, brightly
painted boats ply the serene water,
ocean hue of brillian blue, very hypnotic.


Coherence
Logical bridge space order
village itself, perched on rockscottages-boats- Atlantic Ocean focal
point the village itself.
Verbal bridge signal words
denoting locations or direction on,
around, below, further, up left

Type of Description
Objective description a fishing
village, perched on granite rocks, rocks
lashed by waves, white rocks, red roofed
cottages , serene waters.
Subjective description tiny
connotes familiarity, picturesquesuggests no ordinary beauty, stark- hints
of total complete quality, quaintconjures feelings of nostalgia, a longing
for the pleasant past placid, pacificconveys serenity, peace, hypnotic-

Giving Titles
Titles a distinguishing name of a book,
poem, selection, picture, etc. oftentimes,
the title spells the difference between a
well-read and a less read material. A
catchy, striking, or attractive title
entices yo to read on. Therefore, it pays
to have a title that is not only relevant
and suggestive of the content, but also
attractive.

Paragraph by
Example

Sample Paragraph
What a Piece of Work is Man!
No man has painted more deep-dyed villain than
has Shakespeare, but at some hour in the lives of these
most wicked of characters, you see their souls quivering
under the eyes of God. Macbeth has murdered the king; in
the midst of festivity he sees the ghost, the shadow of his
conscience! The king in Hamlet has murdered his brother;
at the hour of midnight, he is a man alone with the
Eternal God. He trembles like a coward; the murderer
wants to pray. A sea of blood rolls between his guilty soul
and the merciful eyes of God. See Richard the Third who
sailed his craft of state on a sea of blood up to the English
throne. Alone in his tent, he cries out in his sleep the
nature of murdered dead. These examples illustrate that
at some hour in each sinners life, he stands there in the
Valley of sin and yearns for Gods forgiveness.

Analyzing the Structure of the Sample

Paragraph
Unity
Topic Sentence - but at some hour in the lives of
the most wicked of characters, you see their souls
quivering under the eyes of God.
Controlling idea - wicked characters quivering
under the eyes of God
Supporting details Examples of deep-dyed
villains who quiver before God:
Macbeth has murdered the king; sees the ghostshadow of his conscience;
The king in hamlet has murdered his brother; at
midnight he trembles like a coward;
Richard the Third has murdered the king of England;
alone in his ten, he cries out the name of the

Coherence
Logical Bridge (paragraph order)
(deductive): from general (topic
sentence) to particular (examples of
deep-dyed villains who quiver before
God.)
Verbal Bridge(Structural Device) Repetition of key words- Deep-dyed
villains, most wicked characters,
murderer


Forming Opinion
Opinion is a belief that rests on grounds
insufficient to produce certainty, yet it is shared by
many. Opinion may take the form of a sentiment,
an impression, or a point of view something that
cannot be measured objectively. To say that one is
beautiful is subjective, and, therefore, may be an
opinion but to say that one has a wide forehead is
objective and cannot pass for an opinion because
the width of the forehead can be measured.
Others people opinions may concur with or
differ from your, but all opinions are correct as far
as the one who expresses it is concerned. However,
although all opinions are well taken, responsible
people do not form opinions indiscriminately;

Paragraph
by
Classificatio
n

A paragraph by classification divides

people, places, or things into groups.
The classification is normally made
according to a criterion or several
criteria (standards or principles on
which judgment is based).
In the
sample
paragraph,
the
chemical
hazards, its forms, and its preventive
measures are the criteria or bases of
classification.

Some signal words (a type of verbal

bridge) used for classification are:
basis/bases
divide into/subdivide
criterion/criteria
classify/sub-classify
characteristics

several
classes/subclasses
a number of
main type
arrange suborder

features
two of the
groups/subgroups
categorize/subcategorize
category/subcategory

Developing
Skills

Reading

Outlining
Outlining is a reading
skill used in taking down
notes
from
a
reading
material. It enables
one
to
differentiate
general
information from one which
is specific. In an outline, any
section which is subdivided
must have at least two
subdivisions.

Kinds of Outline
Sentence outline is one in which the main
sections and subsections are expressed in
sentence form.
Topic outline contains headings which may
be words, phrases, or clauses. The grammatical
structures for all the headings to be used must
be parallel.

Paragraph outline is a special kind of

sentence outline which is like the summary or
the prcis of a reading material. It is a
numbered list of sentences, each of which
contains the topic or main idea of each

Logical subordination. Items in the outline

should be logically subordinated. Sub-points
listed under larger headings should be
subordinate in meaning, and should not be of
equal
importance to them or even greater.
Any sub-point should be related to the major
point under
which it is listed.

Parallel structure. All members of the

division of equal rank should have similar
grammatical structure. If you start with a
noun phrase for the first of the main headings,
the 2nd, 3rd, 3tc. must also be expressed as
noun phrases. Unnecessary shifts from active
to passive
voice or from statement to
question should be avoided.
Mechanics. The first words of an
outline are always capitalized. For a topical
outline, no end punctuation is used.

1.
a.
b.
c.
1.
a.
b.
c.

Opposing or Block
Pattern
Subject A:
First characteristic of
A
Second
characteristic of A
Third characteristic
of A, etc.
Subject B
First characteristic of
B
Second
characteristic of B
Third characteristic
of B, etc.

Alternating Pattern
1.
a.
b.
1.
a.
b.
1.
a.
b.

First characteristic:
of Subject A
of Subject of B
Second characteristic
of Subject A
of Subject B
Third characteristic
of Subject A
of Subject B

In the opposing or block pattern, all the

characteristics of Subject A are
explained fully
or completely before
the characteristics of Subject B. are
discussed.
In the alternating pattern, the
characteristics of Subjects A and B are
elucidated
alternately; that is; the first
characteristic of Subject A is discussed fully,
followed by the
elaboration of the first
characteristic of Subject B. Then the second
characteristic of
subject
B is also
taken up fully, and so on.

Some signal words (type of verbal bridge) used for

comparison and contrast are:
For comparison
like
in the same
manner
equally
so
also
too
Likewise
both
similarly

For contrasting
whereas
in contrast
on the contrary
yet
instead
to differentiate
however
but
on the other hand

Developing
Skills

Reading

Skimming and Scanning

Skimming and scanning are two reading
skills most needed when we have to read
to
learn, and when we have to search for
information from volumes of reading
materials.
Skimming is used in looking
for general ideas. We skim pages,
chapters, tables of contents, and
even
dictionaries, to find out if the reading
material contains the information we need.
Scanning on the other hand, is done
to find specific information in answer to
specific questions.

When skimming:
Study the title of the chapter,
section, or article. The title tells a lot
about the content.
Find the main idea.
When scanning:
Study
the
topic
sentence
to
determine if the information you need
to answer a specific question is
discussed in the paragraph.
Have in mind what you are looking
for; look for the keywords.

Paragraph by Analogy

A paragraph by analogy compares two

different things on the basis of their similarities
in certain respects. It is used most
effectively in explaining difficult or unknown
concepts. This
kind or paragraph development
premises its explanation on the familiar or known,
so that the logical order (from the familiar to the
unfamiliar) is presumed to be the best paragraph
order.
Analogy differs from comparison and
contrast as a method of paragraph development
because analogy compares two things
belonging to different classes 9in the sample
paragraph, learning and growing a garden), while
comparison and contrast compares two things of
the same kind (e.g., two persons, two places).

different ideas or things are compared through

analogy.
Sample
There is an old story that says you cant kill a frog
by putting him in boiling water. He reacts so quickly to
the sudden heat that he jumps before he is burned. But
if you put him in cold water and then warm it up
gradually, he never decides to jump until it is too late.
By then, he is cooked. Men are just foolish. Take way
their freedom overnight and you have a violent
revolution. But steal it from them gradually in the guise
of security, peace, and progress and you can paralyze
an entire nation.

Paragraph by Cause and

Effects

Discussing the
Characteristics of the
Paragraph Developed by
Cause and Effect
In a paragraph developed by cause and
effect, the writer points out the
relationship between certain events or
situations and their consequences.

Kernelizin
g
Kernelizing is the process of breaking
down into simple sentences long
sentences
having many ideas. This
reading skill is an aid for better
comprehension.

A definition makes clear the meaning of a

word or an idea in simple and
understandable
terms. It includes the
term to be defined, the class or species to
which the term or idea
belongs and the
distinguishing characteristic/s that make
the term or idea different from the other
members belonging to the same class or
species. There are three types of definition:
the synonym, the intensive definition, and
the extensive definition.
A synonym is a word that is similar
or almost similar in meaning to the word or
idea being defined.

Examples

pretty and beautiful

adept and skillful

An intensive definition is a one-sentence definition that includes the term to be

defined, the class to which the term belongs, and the characteristic/s
that make it different
from others in the same class or species.

Example

intensive definition: emotional intelligence (term) is abilities(class)

involving emotional discipline and control (characteristics
differentiating EQ from other abilities)

The extensive definition is an expansion of the intensive definition (or one-sentence

definition) into a paragraph. The intensive definition is amplified into a
paragraph through the
use of one or more methods of paragraph development;
such as: example, classification,
analogy, description, comparison, contrast,
cause and effect, etc.

Identifying the Main Ideas

The main idea is the most
important thought the author aims to
develop. The main idea of a
paragraph is located in the topic
sentence which may ne stated or
implied.

Discussing the Structure of the

Paragraph Interpreting Graphic
Linear bars,graphs, pricture or pie graphs, tables, and charts are graphic
or non-prose-reading materials. They contain summarized information or
Presented in a systematic and logically organized form using symbos and
Numbers.These graphic materials are very good sources of data or inforMation for research.
The analysis and interpetatin of these non-prose materials usually makes
Use of the inductive method. In effect, the sequence is:
1.Begin with and introduction of what the graphic material presents; ex.The
table presents the dollar remittances of overseas workers.
2. Give a general statement that contains the main idea; for example The US
Dollar remittances iof the OFWs tolated to US S7.9B. This serves as the
Topic sentence.

3. Present the details to support the topic sentence. These are the
Quarterly remittances.
4.Close the presentation of supporting details with a clinching
Sentence in the form of a summary of findings;for example,
Remittances for the 1st and 3rd quarters were low, while those for the 2nd
and 4th quarters were high.
5.State the generalization which is your conclusion based on the findings, as:
The high remittances for the 2nd quarters may be due to the opening of
Classes in June and the advent of Christmas in December. Both seasons
Entail extra expenses.
Presenting data from graphs/tables requires of the writer:

1.The ability to present the facts/information objectively, avoiding conjectures

or opinions;
2. A keen sense or ability to see the significance of the relationship between
the parts (details0 and the topic to the whole paragraph; and
3. The ability to interpret facts and to form a generalization based on the details
Presented.`

A composition is an exercise of putting together words, sentences, and

Paragraphs that are combined into a whole. A short composition may have
Five to eight paragraphs or may be two to five pages in length. It has a
Central purpose or objective that controls the whole composition. The purpose
Is expressed in a sentence called thesis statement, usually found in the beginning
Paragraph of the composition.
1.Title the title is often a fragment. The first and the last words and all the
Important words are capitalized. Prepositions, articles, and short conjuctions
Not capitalized unless they are the first or the last words fo the title.
Points to consider in writing a title:
Indicate what the composition is about
Created readers interest to read the compostion
Be brief as possible
Attention - getting titles capture the readers attention and draw him into writing.
Several strategies could be used to create this type of heading.

 Aliteration repetition of the initial sounds ex. Lasers, Light, and love
Allusion reference to a famous play, book, song, slogan, etc.
Ex. A Separate Peace in Bangladesh
Pun/Humor a play on words using sound or meaning ex. American
Presidents: An Acid Reign
Startling Question Example: Is Homework Deadly?
2. Introduction this is the first major part of the composition. It includes
The thesis statement which gives the plan for the compostion, Its purpose is to
Prepare the reader for the suject, to engage his interest in it and to lead him to
Discussion.
Consider the ff. points in organizing your Introduction:
a.Write an opening sentence or two to attract the readers attention and to
Focus is his interest on the thesis or topic of the composition.
b. Write a sentence or two either before the thesis statement or after it, to give
The background of the subject, to set the limits of the discussion or to clarify
The meaning of the keywords in the thesis statement.
c. Write the thesis statement. This has a main idea or a subject followed

Followed by two or three parts or supports. The supports are often introduced by
Because, as, due to, or by a punctuation mark, usually the colon. For style or for
Emphasis, the supports precede the main idea. The parts supports of the thesis
Statement determine the content, the order and the aproximate wording of the
Topic sentences that begin the paragraphs in the main text or discussion. In turn,
The topic sentences dictate the organization of the paragraphs.
4. Hook your reader. To get your readers interest in your subject matter, and to
Keep him reading, you may choose any one of the six different strategies you feel
Is best to get your idea across to your reader and to suit your purpose.
Suggested Techniques for Writing the Introductory Paragraph
a.Dramatize or present part of an anecdote. Present a brief dramatic scene or part
of an interesting or humorous story. Highlight someone or an incident that you will
Discuss or characterize later in your discussion.
b.Begin with a quotation. Quotations which sum up an idea are found in plays, short
Stories, novels, poems, songs, newspapers., magazines, and textbooks. Set the
Quotation marks, then follow it up with you own words.

c. Surprise with an expected point of view. Catch the reader off guard, startle
Him by beginning the introduction with a point of view he doesnt expect.
Contradict what you think he believes as true or right.
d. Begin with a question. Asking a question involves the readers participation
He thinks actively about the question asked, before he is led to the writers answer
In the thesis statement.
e. Build Background. Present a background information in a series of statements that
Will build and strengthen the thesis. This develops the readers interest until the
Climactic presentation of the thesis at the end of the introductory paragraph.
f. Combine these techniques or simplify them. An anecdote can include a
Quotation. A question may precede a surprise point of view. A dramatic scene can be
Simplified by summing it up in one statement. Background information can be
Shortened.

3.Body/Main Text/ Discussion

This is the second major part of the composition. It is determined by
The supports in the thesis statement.
a.Getting the correct order. The orderly sequencing of ideas in a composition
Is one way of obtaining coherence in a composition. The choice of proper order
Will depend on the purpose of the composition.
b. Choosing an effective methods of paragraph development. The appropriate
Method hinges again upon the thesis statement which may be amplified through
Examples, narrations, giving causes and effects, descriptions, comparisons,etc.
c. Keeping a balance. This depends too, on the purpose of the composition as stated
In the thesis statement of the introduction.
d. Providing signals (Verbal Bridges). Signals should be provided for important points
In the composition particularly the major turning points.

d. Paving the way. Pave the way for the reader. Word choice, sentence
structure, and organization of the paragraphs should be smooth and readable.
The composition should be a pleasure to read.
4. Concluding Paragraph
The concluding paragraph is the third major part of the composition.
It is the most powerful part of writing. It should provoke the reader and stimulate
him to think about the topic
Essential functions of a good conclusion:
Restates the thesis statement this reasserts the idea in the thesis statement
Summarizes the main points a summary draws together and reinforces the main
a composition.
Offers solutions to a problem
Presents opinion
Use final question A final question often prompts the reader to think further on the
topic. If your composition persuades, the concluding question may pave the way
for a reasonable person to emphasize your point of view.

Provide a captivating quotation. A quotation can capture the essence of your

thought end the composition with authority.
Sustain the readers interest by an ironic twist or surprising observation. This
technique sustains the readers interest and prompts him to think further about
The topic discussed.
Emphasize through a clever or lighthearted ending. The writer ends by exaggerating the fault or the idea criticized.
Challenge the reader. A challenge often engages the reader to take action.
Express hope or a recommendation. Both hope and recommendation may restate
points mentioned in the composition or suggest actions to take in order to arrive at
a solution.