Chapter 9

Biology 25: Human Biology

Prof. Gonsalves
Los Angeles City College
Loosely Based on Maders Human
Biology,7th edition

Human Respiratory System

Functions:

Works closely with circulatory system,

exchanging gases between air and blood:
Takes up oxygen from air and supplies it to
blood (for cellular respiration).
Removal and disposal of carbon dioxide
from blood (waste product from cellular
respiration).

Homeostatic Role:

Regulates blood pH.

Regulates blood oxygen and carbon dioxide
levels.

Blood Transports Gases Between Lungs and Tissues

Human Respiratory System

Components:
Nasal cavity, throat (pharynx), larynx (voice box),
trachea, bronchi, alveoli, and lungs.
Pathway of Inhaled Air:
Nasal cavity
Pharynx (Throat)
Larynx (Voice Box)
Trachea (Windpipe)
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli (Site of gas exchange)
Exhaled air follows reverse pathway.

Human Respiratory System

1. Nasal cavity: Air enters nostrils, is filtered by hairs, warmed,
humidified, and sampled for odors as it flows through a maze of
spaces.
2. Pharynx (Throat): Intersection where pathway for air and food
cross. Most of the time, the pathway for air is open, except when
we swallow.
3. Larynx (Voice Box): Reinforced with cartilage. Contains vocal
cords, which allow us to make sounds by voluntarily tensing
muscles.
High pitched sounds: Vocal cords are tense, vibrate fast.
Low pitched sounds: Vocal cords are relaxed, vibrate slowly.
More prominent in males (Adams apple).

Human Respiratory System

4. Trachea (Windpipe): Rings of cartilage maintain shape
of trachea, to prevent it from closing. Forks into two
bronchi.
5. Bronchi (Sing. Bronchus): Each bronchus leads into a
lung and branches into smaller and smaller
bronchioles, resembling an inverted tree.
6. Bronchioles: Fine tubes that allow passage of air.
Muscle layer constricts bronchioles. Epithelium of
bronchioles is covered with cilia and mucus.
Mucus traps dust and other particles.
Ciliary Escalator: Cilia beat upwards and remove
trapped particles from lower respiratory airways.
Rate about 1 to 3 cm per hour.

Pulmonary Function Tests

Assessed by spirometry.
Subject breathes into a closed system in
which air is trapped within a bell floating
in H20.
The bell moves up when the subject
exhales and down when the subject inhales.

Spirogram

Tidal volume:
Amount of air expired with each breath.
Vital capacity:
The maximum amount of air that can be forcefully
exhaled after maximum inhalation.

Table 16.3 Terms Used to Describe Lung Volumes

and Capacities
Term

Definition

Lung Volumes

The four nonoverlapping components of the total lung

capacity

Tidal volume

The volume of gas inspired or expired in an unforced

respiratory cycle

Inspiratory reserve volume

The maximum volume of gas that can be inspired during

forced breathing in addition to tidal volume

Expiratory reserve volume

The maximum volume of gas that can be expired during

forced breathing in addition to tidal volume

Residual volume

The volume of gas remaining in the lungs after a maximum

expiration

Lung Capacities

Measurements that are the sum of two or more lung volumes

Total lung capacity

The total amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum

inspiration

Vital capacity

The maximum amount of gas that can be expired after a

maximum inspiration

Inspiratory capacity

The maximum amount of gas that can be inspired after a

normal tidal expiration

Functional residual capacity

The amount of gas remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal

expiration

Anatomical Dead Space

Not all of the inspired air reached the alveoli.

As fresh air is inhaled it is mixed with anatomical
dead space.
Conducting zone and alveoli where 02
concentration is lower than normal and C02
concentration is higher than normal.
Alveolar ventilation: f x (TV- DS)
F = frequency (breaths/min.).
TV = tidal volume.
DS = dead space.

Restrictive and Obstructive

Disorders

Restrictive
disorder:
Vital capacity
is reduced.
FVC is normal.
Obstructive
disorder:
VC is normal.
FEV is
1
reduced.

Breathing Ventilates the Lungs

Breathing: Alternation of inhalation and exhalation. Supplies our
lungs with oxygen rich air, and expels excess carbon dioxide.
Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts, moving downward and
causing rib cage, chest cavity, and lungs to expand. Air rushes
in, due to decrease in internal lung pressure as lungs expand.
Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes, moving upwards and causing
rib cage, chest cavity, and lungs to contract. Air rushes out, due
to the increase in internal lung pressure as lungs contract.
Breathing is controlled by centers in the nervous system to
keep up with bodys demands.

Hemoglobin helps transport CO2 and buffer blood

Hemoglobin is found in red blood cells
Functions:

Transports oxygen
Transport carbon dioxide
Helps buffer blood

As carbon dioxide is picked up from tissues it is converted

into carbonic acid:
CO2 + H2O <-----> H2CO3 <----> H+ + HCO3 Carbon
ion
dioxide

Carbonic acid

Carbonate

Hemoglobin picks up most H + ions, so they dont acidify the

blood.

Hemoglobin Loading and Unloading of Oxygen

Respiratory Acid-Base Balance

Ventilation normally adjusted to keep

pace with metabolic rate.

H2CO3 produced converted to CO2,
and excreted by the lungs.

H20 + C02

H2C03

H+ + HC03-

Respiratory Acidosis
Hypoventilation.
Accumulation of CO2 in the tissues.

pH decreases.
Plasma HCO3- increases.
Pc02 increases.

Respiratory Alkalosis
Hyperventilation.
Excessive loss of CO2.

pH increases.
Plasma HCO3- decreases.
Pc02 decreases.

Diseases of the Respiratory System

Respiratory rate: 10 to 14 inhalations/minute.

In one day, an average human:

Breathes 20,000 times

Inhales 35 pounds of air

Most of us breathe in air that is heavily contaminated with

solid particles, ozone, sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, and many other damaging chemicals.

Breathing contaminated air can cause a number of diseases

including asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer.

Diseases of the Respiratory System

Respiratory rate: 10 to 14 inhalations/minute.

In one day, an average human:

Breathes 20,000 times

Inhales 35 pounds of air

Most of us breathe in air that is heavily contaminated with

solid particles, ozone, sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, and many other damaging chemicals.

Breathing contaminated air can cause a number of diseases

including asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer.

Diseases of the Respiratory System

Cigarette smoke is one of the worse air pollutants.

Over 1 million people start smoking every year.

Kills about 350,000 people every year in U.S.
Contains 4000 different chemicals.
Each cigarette smoked subtracts about 5
minutes from life expectancy.
Cigarette smoke paralyzes cilia in airways,
preventing them from removing debris and from
protecting delicate alveoli.
Frequent coughing is the only way airways can
clean themselves.
Cigarette smoke also causes fetal damage, which
can result in miscarriage, premature birth, low
birth weight, and poor development.

Diseases of the Respiratory System

Asthma: Condition in which breathing is impaired by
constriction of bronchi and bronchioles, cough, and
thick mucus secretions. The severity and incidence of
asthma has risen dramatically in recent years,
especially in children. May be fatal if not treated.
Causes: Attacks may be precipitated by inhalation of
allergens (e.g.: pollen, cats, and cockroach proteins),
pollutants, infection, or emotional stress.
Treatment: Alleviates symptoms (e.g.: immunosuppressors, bronchodilators), but is not a cure.

Diseases of the Respiratory System

Bronchitis: Inflammation of the mucous membranes of the
bronchi. May present with cough, fever, chest or back
pain, and fatigue.
Causes: Associated with smoking, pollution, and bacterial
or viral infections.
Pneumonia: Acute inflammation of the lungs. Symptoms
include high fever, chills, headache, cough, and chest pain.
Causes: Bacterial, fungal, or viral infections.
Treatment: Antibiotics or other antimicrobials.

Diseases of the Respiratory System

Emphysema: Permanent and irreversible
destruction of alveolar walls, resulting in loss of
lung elasticity and gas exchange surface.
Symptoms include shortness of breath, difficulty
exhaling, cough, weakness, anxiety, confusion, heart
failure, lung edema (swelling), and respiratory
failure.
Causes: Smoking, pollution, old age, and infections.
Treatment: Oxygen to help breathing. No cure.

Diseases of the Respiratory System

Lung Cancer: Cancerous growth that invades and destroys
lung tissue. Very high fatality rate.
Symptoms include bloody sputum, persistent cough,
difficulty breathing, chest pain, and repeated attacks of
bronchitis or pneumonia.
Causes: Smoking (50% of all cases) and pollution (radon,
asbestos). Smokers are 10 times more likely to develop
lung cancer than nonsmokers.
Treatment: Surgery is most effective, but only 50% of all
lung cancers are operable by time of detection. Other
treatments include radiation and chemotherapy.

Human Fetus Exchanges Gases with Mothers Blood

through the Placenta