Chapter 23

Machining Processes Used to Produce Round

Shapes: Turning and Hole Making

Lathe Cutting
Operations
Figure 23.1 Miscellaneous cutting
operations that can be performed
on a lathe. Note that all parts are
circular a property known as
axisymmetry. The tools used, their
shape, and the processing
parameters are described
throughout this chapter.

Lathe Cutting Operations

Turning: to produce straight, conical, curved, or grooved
workpieces (Figs. 23.la through d), such as shafts, spindles, and
pins.
Facing: to produce a flat surface at the end of the part and
perpendicular to its axis (Fig. 23.1e), useful for parts that are
assembled with other components. Face grooving produces
grooves for applications such as O-ring seats (Fig. 23.1f).
Cutting with form tools: (Fig. 23.1g) to produce various
axisymmetric shapes for functional or aesthetic purposes.
Boring: to enlarge a hole or cylindrical cavity made by a
previous process or to produce circular internal grooves (Fig.
23.1h).

Lathe Cutting Operations

Drilling: to produce a hole (Fig. 23.1i), which may be
followed by boring to improve its dimensional accuracy and
surface finish.
Parting: also called cutting off, to cut a piece from the end of
a part, as is done in the production of slugs or blanks for
additional processing into discrete products (Fig. 23.1j).
Threading: to produce external or internal threads (Fig.
23.1k).
Knurling: to produce a regularly shaped roughness on
cylindrical surfaces, as in making knobs and handles (Fig.
23.1l).

Lathe Cutting Operations and Lathe Tools

Characteristics of Machining Processes and Typical

Dimensional Tolerances

Turning Operation
Turning may be performed
at various speeds, dep and
feeds (Fig. 22.3),
depending on:
workpiece and tool
materials
surface finish and
dimensional accuracy
required
characteristics of the
machine tool.

Figure 23.3 Schematic illustration of the basic turning

operation, showing depth-of-cut, d; feed, f; and spindle
rotational speed, N in rev/min. Cutting speed is the
surface speed of the workpiece at the tool tip.

Designations for a Right-Hand Cutting Tool

Figure 23.4 Designations for a right-hand cutting tool. Right-hand means the tool
travels form right to left, as shown in Fig. 23.3.

THE TURNING PROCESS

Tool Geometry

General Recommendations for Tool Angles in

Turning

THE TURNING PROCESS

Tool Geometry
Table 23.2: General Recommendations for Turning Tool Angles
Rake angles are important in controlling both direction of chip flow and
strength of tool tip
Positive rake angles improve cutting operation by reducing forces and
temperatures. However, positive angles result in a small included angle of
tool tip
Relief angles control interference and rubbing at tool workpiece interface
If relief angle is too large, tool tip may chip off. If it is too small, flank
wear may be excessive
Cutting-edge angle affect chip formation, tool strength, and cutting forces
to various degrees
The nose radius affects surface finish and tool-tip strength
The smaller the nose radius, the rougher the surface finish of the
workpiece and the lower the strength of the tool. Large nose radii can lead
to tool chatter.

THE TURNING PROCESS

Material Removal Rate (MRR)

THE TURNING PROCESS

Material Removal Rate (MRR)

THE TURNING PROCESS

Forces in Turning
Three forces acting on a cutting tool are shown in Fig. 22.3b
Cutting force, Fc: acts downward on the tool tip. This is the
force that supplies energy required for cutting operation. It
can be calculated, using Table 21.2.
Thrust force, Ft: acts in longitudinal direction. This force is
also called the feed force because it is in the feed direction.
Radial force, Fr: acts in radial direction and tends to push the
tool away from the workpiece

Forces Acting on a Cutting Tool in Turning

Figure 23.5 Forces acting on a cuttin tool in turning, Fc is the cutting force, Ft is the thrust of
feed force (in the direction of feed), and Fr is the radial force that tends to push the tool away
from the workpiece being machined.

THE TURNING PROCESS

Summary of Turning Parameters and Formulas
N = Rotational speed of workpiece, rpm
= Feed, mm/rev or in/rev
= Feed rate, or linear speed of tool along workpiece length, mm/min or
in/min = N
V = Surface speed of workpiece, m/min or ft/min = DoN (for max
speed)= DavgN (for average speed)
l = Length of cut, mm or in
Do = Original diameter of workpiece, mm or in
D = Final diameter of workpiece, mm or in
Davg = Average diameter of workpiece, mm or in = (Do + D)/2
d = Depth of cut, mm or in = (Do - D)/2
t = Cutting time, s or min = L/N
MRR = mm3/min or in.3/min = Davg d N
Torque = N. m or lb.ft = (Fc) (Davg/2)
Power = k W or hp = (Torque) (), where = 2 N radians/min

Summary of
Turning
Parameters
and Formulas

THE TURNING PROCESS

Summary of Turning Parameters and Formulas
Roughing and Finishing Cuts.
In machining, the usual procedure is to first perform one or
more roughing cuts at high feed rates and large depths of cut
(and thereforehigh material~removal rates), but with little
consideration for dimensional tolerance and surface roughness.
These cuts are then followed by a finishing cut, at a lower feed
and depth of cut in order to produce a good surface finish.

Range of Applicable Cutting Speeds and Feeds for

Tool Materials

Figure 23.6 The range of

applicable cutting speeds and
feeds for a variety of tool
materials.

General Recommendations for Turning Operations

General Recommendations for Turning Operations, cont.

General Recommendations for Turning Operations, cont

Specific energy for cutting

General Recommendations for Cutting Fluids for Machining

THE TURNING PROCESS

EXAMPLE 23.l Material-removal Rate and Cutting Force in Turning
A 150mm long, 12.5mm-diameter 304 stainless steel rod is being reduced in
diameter to 12.0 mm by turning on a lathe. The spindle rotates at N = 400 rpm,
and the tool is traveling at an axial speed of 200 mm/min. Calculate the cutting
speed, material-removal
rate, cutting time, power dissipated, and cutting force.
Solution:
V = DON
= (3.14*12.5*400)/1000 = 15.7 m/min
The cutting speed at the machined diameter is
V = DON
= (3.14*12.0*400)/1000 = 15.1 m/min
the depth of cut is
d = (12.5-12) / 2 = 0.25mm
the feed is
f = 200/400 = 0.5 mm/rev.
MRR = DavgdN = 3.14*12.25*0.25*0.5*400 = 1924 mm3/min = 2*10-6 m3/min
MRR = dfV = 0.25 * 0.5 * 15.7*1000 = 2*10-6 m3/min

THE TURNING PROCESS

The actual time to cut is t = L / fN = 150 / 0.5*400 = 0.75 min
The specific energy for stainless steel from table 21.3 is 4
W.S/mm3
The power needed is P = U * MRR
= (4 * 1924) / 60 = 128 watt
one watt = 1 N.m/sec = 60 N.m/min
So the power p = 128*60 = 7680 N.m/min
Power = (Torque) (), Torque = 7680 / 2*3.14*400 = 3.1 N.m
Torque = Fc * (Davg/2)
Fc = (2*torque) / Davg = 2 * 3.1 / (12.25/1000) = 506 N

Lathe Components

Figure 23.2 General view of a typical lathe, showing various components.

Source: Courtesy of Heidenreich & Harbeck.

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Lathe Components
1. Bed: The bed supports all major components of the lathe. Beds
have a large mass and are built rigidly, usually from gray or
nodular cast iron. The top portion of the bed has two ways
2. Carriage: Consists of an assembly of cross-slide, tool post,
and apron
The tool post, usually with a compound rest that swivels for tool
positioning and adjustment.
The cross-slide moves radially in and out
The apron is equipped with mechanisms for both manual and
mechanized movement of carriage and cross-slide by means of
the lead screw

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Lathe Components
3. Headstock: have a hollow spindle to which Workholding
devices, such as chucks and collets, are attached, and long bars
or tubing can be fed through for various turning operations.
4. Tailstock: It is equipped with a center that may be fixed (dead
center) or may be free to rotate with the workpiece (live center).
Drills and reamers can be mounted on tailstock quill to drill axial
holes in the workpiece
A quill is a hollow cylindrical part with a tapered hole
5. The feed rod and Lead Screw.: is powered by a set of gears
from the headstock. It rotates during the operation of the lathe
and provides movement to the carriage and the cross-slide by
means of gears

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Lathe Specifications
A lathe generally is specified by the following parameters:
Swing: the max diameter of the workpiece that can be machined
The max distance between the headstock and tailstock centers
(distance between centers)
The length of the bed
Table 23.6: Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece
Dimensions for Machine Tools
For example, a lathe may have the following size: 360-mm
swing by 760 mm between centers by 1830-mm length of bed.
Maximum workpiece diameters may be as much as 2 m.

Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece

Dimensions for Machine Tools

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Workholding Devices and accessories - A chuck
3 or 4 jaws
3 jaws generally have a geared-scroll design that makes the jaws
self-centering. Used for round workpieces [bar stock, pipes tubing]
4 jaw independent chucks. Used for square, rectangular, or odd
shaped more ruggedly than three jaw chucks, four-jaw chucks are
used for heavy workpieces
jaws can be reversed
chucks: power actuated [pneumatically or hydraulically] or manual
chucks available in various designs & sizes: selection depends on:
1. type & speed of operation
2. workpiece size
3. production & accuracy requirements.
4. jaw forces requirements

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Workholding Devices and accessories - A Collet
A collet is basically a longitudinally-split, tapered bushing.
The workpiece (generally with a maximum diameter of 25
mm) is placed inside the collet.
The tapered surfaces shrink the segments of the collet radially,
tightening onto the workpiece.
One advantage to using a collet (rather than a three- or fourjaw chuck) is that the collet grips nearly the entire
circumference of the part, making the device well suited
particularly for parts with small cross sections.

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Workholding Devices and accessories Face Plates
and Mandrels
Face plates are used for clamping irregularly shaped
workpieces. The plates are round and have several slots and
holes through which the workpiece is bolted or clamped (Fig.
23.7d).
Mandrels (Fig. 23.8) are placed inside hollow or tubular
workpieces and are used to hold workpieces that require
machining on both ends or on their cylindrical surfaces.
Some mandrels are mounted between centers on the lathe.
a. both the cylindrical and the end faces of the workpiece can be
machined
b. only the cylindrical surfaces can be machined

Collets

Figure 23.7 (a) and (b) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in type collet. The
workpiece is placed in the collet hole, and the conical surfaces of the collet are forced
inwards by pulling it with a draw bar into the sleeve. (c) A push-out type collet. (d)
Workholding of a workpiece on a face plate.

Mandrels to Hold Workpieces for Turning

Figure 23.8 Various types of mandrels to hold workpieces for turning. These mandrels
usually are mounted between centers on a lathe. Note that in (a), both the cylindrical
and the end faces of the workpiece can be machined, whereas in (b) and (c), only the
cylindrical surfaces can be machined.

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Lathe Operations
Long and slender parts must be supported by a steady rest and
follow rest placed on the bed otherwise the part will deflect under the
cutting forces.
These rests usually are equipped with three adjustable fingers or
rollers that support the workpiece while allowing it to rotate freely
Steady rests are clamped directly on the ways of the lathe, whereas
follow rests are clamped on the carriage and travel with it.
A right-hand tool travels toward the headstock, and a left-hand tool
travels toward the tailstock.
Form tools are used to produce various shapes on solid, round
workpieces by moving the tool radially inward while the part is
rotating.
Form cutting is not suitable for deep and narrow grooves or sharp
corners, because vibration and chatter may result and cause poor
surface finish.

Steady rests and Follow rests

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Lathe Operations
Boring on a lathe is similar to turning. It is performed inside hollow
workpieces or in a hole made previously by drilling or other means.
Out-of-shape holes can be straightened by boring.
Drilling The workpiece is clamped in a work holder on the headstock,
and the drill bit is advanced by rotating the handwheel of the tailstock.
Holes drilled in this manner may not be sufficiently concentric
because of the tendency for the drill to drift radially. The concentricity
of the hole can be improved by subsequently boring the drilled hole.
Drilled holes may be reamed (Section 23.6) on lathes in a manner
similar to drilling, thus improving hole dimensional tolerances and
surface finish.
The tools for parting, grooving, threading, and various other
operations are specially shaped for their particular purpose or are
available as inserts. Knurling is performed on a lathe with hardened
rolls

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Types of Lathes

Bench Lathes.
Special-purpose Lathes.
Special applications (such as railroad wheels, gun barrels, and rolling-mill
rolls) with workpiece sizes as large as 1.7 m in diameter by 8 m in length and
capacities of 450 kW
Tracer Lathes
With attachments capable of turning parts with various contours
have been replaced largely by numerical-control lathes.
Automatic Lathes
medium to high volume production, parts are fed and removed
automatically, Lathes that do not have tailstocks are called chucking machines
or chuckers. They are either single- or multiple-spindle types.
Automatic Bar Machines (Screw Machines): high production rate of screws

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Types of Lathes
Turret Lathes
multiple cutting operations [turning, boring, drilling, thread cutting,
and facing]
several cutting tools are mounted on the hexagonal main turret which
is rotated for each specific operation
Vertical turret lathes also are available; they are more suitable for
short, heavy workpieces with diameters as large as 1.2 m.
ram-type turret lathe-one in which the ram slides in a separate base
on the saddle.
The short stroke of the turret slide limits this machine to relatively
short workpieces and light cuts in both small- and medium-quantity
production.
In the saddle type, the main turret is installed directly on the saddle,
which slides along the bed.

Turret Lathe

Figure 23.9 Schematic illustration of the components of a turret lathe. Note the two
turrets: square and hexagonal (main).

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Types of Lathes
CNC Lathe
They are equipped with automatic
tool changers (ATCs)
Their operations are reliably
repetitive, maintain the desired
dimensional accuracy, and
require less skilled labor.

Figure 23.10 (a) A computer numerical-control lathe.

Note the two turrets on this machine. These machines
have higher power and spindle speed than other lathes in
order to take advantage of new cutting tools with
enhanced properties. (b) A typical turret equipped with
ten tools, some of which are powered.

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Examples of Turrets

Parts Made on CNC Lathes

Figure 23.11 Typical parts made on CNC lathes.

Example 23.3: Machining of Complex Shapes

Pump shaft

Tubular part with internal

threads

Crankshaft

Example 23.3: Machining of Complex Shapes

Figure 23.12 Examples of more complex shapes that can be produced on a CNC lathe.

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Turning Process Capabilities
Table 23.8 shows typical prod rates for various cutting operations.
Surface finish and dimensional accuracy in various operations
depend on (see figs 22.14 & 22.15):
1. characteristics and condition of the machine tool
2. stiffness
3. vibration and chatter
4. process parameters
5. tool geometry and wear
6. cutting fluids
7. machinability of workpiece material
8. operator skill

Typical
Production
Rates for
Various
Machining
Operations

Range of
Surface
Roughnesses in
Machining
Processes
Figure 23.13 The range of
surface roughnesses
obtained in various machining
processes. Note the wide
range within each group,
especially in turning and
boring.

Range of
Dimensional
Tolerances in
Machining as a
Function of
Workpiece Size
Figure 23.14 Range of
dimensional tolerances obtained
in various machining processes
as a function of workpiece size.
Note that there is an order os
magnitude difference between
small and large workpieces.

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Design Considerations for Turning Operations
Parts should be designed so that they can be fixtured and
clamped in workholding devices with relative ease
Dimensional accuracy and SF: as wide as permissible
Avoid Sharp corners, tapers, and major dimensional variations
Blanks: be as close to final dimension as possible
Parts should be designed so that cutting tools can travel across
the workpeice without obstruction
Designs: use available standard cutting tools
Materials chosen according to machinability as possible

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Guidelines for turning operations
Table 23.9: general troubleshooting guide
for turning operations
general guidelines:
1. Minimize tool overhang (length to
diameter ratio) to minimize vibration
2. Support workpiece rigidly
3. Use machine tools with high stiffness and
high damping capacity
4. When tools begin to vibrate and chatter,
modify one of the process parameters

Troubleshooting Guide for Turning

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Screw-thread Cutting on a Lathe
LH counterclockwise
locking or RH
clockwise locking
a. Standard nomenclature
for screw Threads
b. Unified National
thread and Id of
threads
c. ISO metric thread and
Id of threads
d. British Standard
Whitworth
(BSW) Id of threads

(b)

(a)

(d)

(c)

Cutting
Screw
Threads

Figure 23.15 (a) Cutting screw threads on a lathe with a single-point cutting tool. (b) Cutting screw threads with a singlepoint tool in several passes, normally utilized for large threads. The small arrows in the figures show the direction of the
feed, and the broken lines show the position of the cutting tool as time progresses. Note that in radial cutting, the tool is fed
directly into the workpiece. In flank cutting, the tool is fed inot the piece along the right face of the thread. In incremental
cutting, the tool is first fed directly into the piece at the center of the thread, then at its sides, and finally into the root. (c) A
typical coated-carbide insert in the process of cutting screw threads on a round shaft. (d) Cutting internal screw threads
with a carbide insert. Source: (c): Courtesy of Iscar Metals Inc.

Chasers and Die for Thread Cutting

Figure 23.16 (a) Straight chasers for cutting threads on a

lathe. (b) Circular chasers. (c) A solid threading die.

LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS

Design Considerations for Screw Thread Cutting

Undercut termination before shoulders

Internal threads in blind hole: unthreaded length at bottom
Avoid shallow blind tapped holes
Chamfers at the ends
Thread sections should not be interrupted with slots, holes
Use standard thread inserts
Min engage length of a fastener should be 1.5 times its diam
All cutting operations in one setup

Boring and Boring Mill

Figure 23.17 (a) Schematic
illustration of a steel boring bar
with a carbide insert. Note the
passageway in the bar for cutting
fluid application. (b) Schematic
illustration of a boring bar with
tungsten-alloy inertia disks
sealed in the bar to counteract
vibration and chatter during
boring. This system is effective
for boring bar length-to-diameter
ratios of up to 6.

Figure 23.18 Schematic illustration of a vertical

boring mill. Such a machine can accommodate
workpiece sizes as large as 2.5m (98 in.) in
diameter.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Chisel-Point
Drill and
Crankshaft
Drill

Figure 23.19 Two common types of drills: (a) Chisel-point drill. The function of the pair of margins is to provide a
bearing surface for the drill against walls of the hole as it penetrates into the workpiece. Drills with four margins (doublemargin) are available for improved drill guidance and accuracy. Drills with chip-breaker features also are available. (b)
Crankshaft drills. These drills have good centering ability, and because chips tend to break up easily, these drills are
suitable for producing deep holes.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

General Capabilities of Drilling

Figure 23.20 Various types of drills

and drilling and reaming operations.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Types of Drills

Figure 23.21 Various types of drills.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Gun Drill

Figure 23.22 (a) A gun drill showing various features. (b)

Schematic illustration of the gun-drilling operation.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Trepanning

Figure 23.23 (a) Trepanning tool. (b) Trepanning with a drill-mounted single cutter.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

General Recommendations for Speeds and Feeds

in Drilling

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Troubleshooting Guide for Drilling

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Vertical Drill Press and Radial Drilling Machine

Figure 23.24 (a) Schematic illustration of the components of a vertical drill press. (b) A radial
drilling machine. Source: (b) Courtesy of Willis Machinery and Tools.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Three-Axis Computer Numerical-Control Drilling

Machine

Figure 23.25 A three-axis computer

numerical-control drilling machine. The
turret holds as many as eight different
tools, such as drills, taps, and reamers.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Helical Reamer and Inserted-Blade Adjustable Reamer

Figure 23.26 (a) Terminology for a helical reamer.

(b) Inserted-blade adjustable reamer.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Tapping

Figure 23.27 (a) Terminology for a tap. (b) Tapping of steel nuts in production.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Cervical Spine Implant

Figure 23.28 A cervical spine implant.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.