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BIOL 102

Lecture 9
Tetrad Analysis (review)
Gene Interaction Part I
Variation to Mendel
Reading Material: pages 147-148; 211-218; 226232
Problems: Ch 4; 38-42 (similar problems were
assigned for Lecture 8)
Problems: Ch6; 18, 21, 23, 24, 40, 44

Tetrad Analysis
A) Mapping Distance b/w Gene Locus and Centromere
1. Determine if the segregation pattern for a locus is MI or MII
type.
2. Calculate the genetic distance b/w locus and centromere
using the formula:
m.u. b/w locus and centromere =1/2 (# MII asci) x 100%
total # asci
3. If the problem involves multiple loci perform (1) and (2) for
each locus.
Note: Map distance b/w centromere & locus is limited to 33 m.u.

B) Mapping Distance b/w Two Gene Loci


I. Independent assortment of two genes will result in 50%
Parental Ditype (PD) and 50% Non-parental Ditype (NPD) or
recombinant Ditype.
P: ab x a+b+

B) Mapping Distance b/w Two Gene Loci


II. Complete Linkage of two genes will result in only parental
ditype (PD) ascus
a+b+
ab
X
P1
P2
a+b+
a+b+
ab
ab
Parental ditype
Complete
linkage with
NO
crossover, we
cannot map
distance

P1
P1

a+b+
a+b+

P2

ab

P2

ab

a+b+
a+b+
ab
ab

B) Mapping Distance b/w Two Gene Loci


III. Linkage of two genes with crossover will result in number of
PD >> number of NPD asci
There are four types of asci to distinguish:
i) Parental ditype (PD) - no crossover b/w loci
ii) Non-parental ditype (NPD) - all spores recombinant
iii) Tetratype (T) -1/2 spores are recombinant
iv) Parental ditype (PD) - with MII segregation, crossover
between one locus and centromere, but NO crossover b/w
loci.

B) Mapping Distance b/w Two Gene Loci


iii) Tetratype is the product of a single crossover or 2 different CO
that involves 3- strands
a+ b+
a b
P1
P2
X
a+
b+
a+ b+
a+
b+ CO 3-strands
SCO 2-strands
a+
b+
a
b
a b
a
b
a b
Tetratype (T)
where 1/2 of
the spores are
non-parental
or
recombinant
(R1 and R2)

P1
R1

a+b+
a+b

R2

ab+

P2

ab

a+ b+
a+

b+

B) Mapping Distance b/w Two Gene Loci


iv) Parental ditype - with MII segregation - No crossover b/w
loci.
a+ b+
a b
P1
P2
X
a+
a+
a
a

b+
b+
b
b

Parental Ditype (PD)


where both
parental types
are present in
both halves of
the ascus

P1
P2

a+b+
ab

P1

a+b+

P2

ab

a+ b+
a
a+
a

b
b+
b

Tetrad types with haploid progeny genotypes

with MII
segregation

B) Mapping distance b/w two gene loci:


1. Determine the phenotype of each spore in an ascus and
score ascus as PD, NPD or T type ascus
2. Calculate genetic distance b/w two loci using formula:
Distance m.u. = 1/2 (T + 6NPD) x 100
total # asci

C) Construction of a Linkage Map


Based on the calculated genetic distances between
individual gene loci and centromere and the distance
between the two gene loci, consider possible order of the
gene loci and the centromere
a

Distance mapped using


mapping b/w a gene locus and
the centromere and mapping
b/w two gene loci may not add
precisely, but should be close

When mapping more than two gene loci, map two gene
loci at a time relative to each other

Penetrance and Expressivity


Penetrance - the frequency with which a genotype
actually expresses a phenotype.
A trait has low
penetrance if few individuals with the gene(s) express it.
Expressivity - the degree to which a trait is expressed in
individuals having the gene(s).
Severity of genetic
diseases such as cleft palate in humans are examples.
Each circle
represents one
individual

Sex Limited Traits


The expression of certain traits is only in one the
sexes
Traits encoded by genes on the autosomes but
the character is expressed only in one sex
E.g.- milk production in cows
Genotypes:
Phenotypes:
Female
Male

LL, Ll,

and

ll

milk

no milk

no milk

no milk

Sex Influenced Traits


Expression of certain traits is influenced by the sex
Appears in both sexes but the frequency or degree
of the phenotypic expression is different between
the sexes
Traits encoded by genes on the autosomes.
Examples
-Pattern of baldness (see next slide)
-Cleft lip & palate- more frequent in males
(2 males:1 female)
-Osteoporosis- more frequent in females
(1 male:3 females)

Sex Influenced Traits


Pattern of Baldness
Genotypes:

b+b+

bb

b+b

nonbald

bald

bald

Females nonbald

bald

nonbald

Phenotypes:
Males

Effects of Environment on Phenotype


Phenotype results from the genotype
interacting with the environment.
Changes in the environment can alter
the phenotype.
Example: Himalayan rabbit
Genotype Ch_
Raise animal at 30 C - get white
extremities
Raise animal at 25-30 C - get dark
color on extremities
Raise animal at < 25 C - get dark
extremities and flank

Multiple Alleles
Essentially all genes have not just two alleles, but many
since there can be mutations at any of 1000 or more
bases in a gene and result in many possible alleles
Let N be the normal (wild-type) base and X a mutation.
Three alleles are:
NNNNNNNNNNNXNNNNNNNNNNN
NNXNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN
NNXNNNNNNNNXNNNNNNNNNNN
Each diploid individual has either two copies of the same
allele, or two different alleles of each gene
Inheritance patterns with multiple alleles can be more
complex because more than two alleles may be present in
the two parents combined

Multiple Alleles
ABO Blood Group Inheritance

ABO Blood Group Inheritance

Will be solved in class

Alleles: IA, IB, i


A possible cross:

IA IB x IA i

Multiple Alleles Results in Various Genotypes

Incomplete Dominance

Will be solved in class

Example: Snapdragon flower color

Incomplete Dominance
The F1 has an intermediate phenotype to the
parents
The phenotypic ratio in the F2 is 1:2:1
The F2 ratio is 1:2:1 rather than 3:1 because the
phenotype of the heterozygote differs from both
homozygotes
Similar terms: partial dominance, semidominance
The heterozygote need not be precisely intermediate
- there is incomplete dominance whenever it is
different and somewhat intermediate in phenotype

Summary of Dominance Relations for


Measurement Traits

Codominance
Codominance usually involves a system in which
the 2 alleles of a single gene have slightly different
products, both of which appear in the expression
of the phenotype. Usually molecular. Effects of
both alleles are detected simultaneously.

Codominance
Codominance: effects of both alleles are detected
simultaneously
E.g.- MN blood group antigens
Alleles: LM and LN. Phenotype is "blood group"
P:
F1:

blood group M x
LM L M

blood group N
L N LN

blood group MN
M LN
L
Both M and N antigens are present on red blood cells.
The products of the two alleles are (usually) expressed
equally.
The A and B alleles of the ABO blood groups are also
codominant.

Modified Mendelian Ratios


We have seen that variation in dominance and
multiple alleles can cause deviations from the 3:1
phenotypic ratio observed by Mendel for single
gene inheritance
When two genes are segregating and influence
the same trait, then interaction between the genes
or gene products can cause deviations from
expected dihybrid ratios

Codominant Loci Alter Genetic Ratios


Consider a dihybrid cross involving a dominant gene
for height (D tall > d short) and the codominant AB blood
allele pair

Will be solved in class

Parents: Dd IAIB

Dd IAIB

Distinguishing One vs Two Gene Inheritance


One gene: F2 progeny occur in multiples of 1/4.
Possible ratios: 3:1, 1:2:1, 1:1:1:1
Two genes (with independent assortment):
F2 progeny occur in multiples of 1/16.
Many possible ratios depending on the nature of
inheritance
Use Product Rule: Form ratios as product of ratios
for each gene, example: (3:1) x (3:1) = 9:3:3:1
(1:2:1) x (3:1) =3:6:3:1:2:1
If two genes influencing the trait are heterozygous
in either or both parents, then more complex ratios
can result from the interaction between the genes
(or gene products).

Two Genes: Complementary Gene Action


Products of 2 gene loci complement each other to
produce a phenotype. One dominant allele at each
locus is required for full expression of the
phenotype.
A common mechanism is that the two genes specify
enzymes that function in the same biochemical
pathway.
This is also called duplicate recessive epistasis

Complementary Gene Action


Products of 2 gene loci complement each other to
produce a phenotype. One dominant allele at each
locus is required for full expression of the phenotype.
E.g.- flower color in sweet pea. Cross two different
true breeding lines with white flowers.
Parents: white #1
F1:

white #2

purple flowers
F1 x F1

F2:

9 purple : 7 white

Complementary Gene Action - Mechanism


Consider a biochemical pathway:
Enzyme A
X

White

Enzyme B
Y

White

Purple pigment

Enzymes A and B must both be present to get color.


Only dominant alleles specify active enzymes.
Complementary gene action occurs when dominant
genes are present at both loci to produce the purple
phenotype.

Complementary Gene Action - Inheritance


Hypothesis: 2 loci, A > a and B > b
Parents: white #1
x
white #2
aaBB
AAbb
F1:
purple flowers
AaBb
F1 x F1
F2: A_B_
9
purple

A_bb
3
white

aaB_
3
white

aabb
1
white

Note that only A_B_ has a functional gene at both loci


9 purple flowers
: 7 (3+3+1) white flowers

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