Advanced Metal Casting

(MAE611)

Dr K.Srinivasulu Reddy
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Adama Science & Technology University

Course Outline

Unit I Properties of Materials for Casting

Ferrous and non ferrous materials, fluidity and the variables affecting
fluidity, mold factors, measurement of fluidity, metal-matrix composites
and their properties and suitability as casting materials, selection of
materials for castings, melting of metals, specific consideration to cast iron,
steel, Al, Mg and Titanium .
Unit II Solidification of Metals
Crystallization and the development of cast structure, nucleation and
growth, constitutional super cooling, columnar and dentritic growth,
independent nucleation, critical radius of nucleus, eutectic and peritectic
freezing, the structure of castings and its control, grain shape and
orientation, directional solidification, grain size control, feeding of castings,
feeding characteristics of alloys, geometric influence on solidification,
agitation feeding methods, insulation and exothermic feeding, pressure
feeding, design of feeder head, modification and padding, differential
cooling and solidification modeling.
Unit III Properties of Moulding Materials and Testing
Functional requirements of mould materials such as green sand, bonding
materials, non-siliceous refractories, loam molding mixtures, mould surface
coatings, sand reclamation and various sand testing techniques and the
international standards for testing foundry sand.

Course Outline Contd..

Unit IV Casting Design
Casting design considerations, mould design for casting, gating system
design, riser design, and CAD/CAM rapid prototyping, initial
considerations in design, technical characteristics, dimensional and
surface characteristics, metallurgical characteristics, process and alloy
selection, inserts, bimetal casting techniques and surface treatments of
castings, moulding factors in casting design, design considerations at
the casting stage, machining factors in casting design, mould design
for sand and die casting, gating system design and riser design.
Unit V Casting Defects and Quality Control
Finishing operations of castings, causes and remedies of various
defects, shaping faults, inclusions, gas defects, contraction, cracking,
distortion, factors affecting dimensional accuracy, quality assessment
and control, product testing procedures, destructive, non-destructive
testing of casting, quality and process control in the foundry, pollution
control in foundries.
Unit VI Automation and Special Casting Techniques
Shell, die, centrifugal casting, unorthodox shaping techniques, squeeze
castings, metal matrix composites, gravity die castings- investment- CL

Lecture Objectives

Advantages of casting

Limitations of casting

Applications of casting

Metal Casting Terminology

Steps involved in making casting

Metal Casting- History

Earliest metal shaping method known to human being.
Casting is a three step process
- Pouring molten metal into a mould patterned after the part to be made.
- Allowing it to solidify.
- After solidification removing metal from the mold either by breaking it
or taking the mold apart.
Discovery of casting process dates back to 3500 BC in Mesopotamia.
In early stages of casting only single pieces like copper axes, and other
flat objects were made.
In later periods, when round objects were required to be manufactured,
the mould was split into two or more parts to facilitate the withdrawal of
the round objects.

Copper Age (~4000 B.C.)

The first metal to be used was copper.

(3200B.C)
The oldest known casting in existence, a pure
copper frog, was cast in Mesopotamia.

Bronze Age (~3000 B.C.)

Bronze was the first alloy used.

Bronze = Copper & 5-10% Tin

Iron Age (~2000 B.C.)

Iron smelting began in Egypt.

Metal Casting- History cont

Great improvements were done by Chinese around 1500 B.C.
Specialized in multi-piece moulds for making highly intricate jobs.
Indus valley civilization is known for their extensive use of casting of
copper and bronze for tools, ornaments, weapons and utensils. But
not much improvements in technology.
India is credited with the invention of crucible steel.
Casting technology in India since 300 BC, during the period when
Alexander the Great invaded India.
The example of the metallurgical skills of ancient India can be seen
from the famous iron pillar located near Qutab Minar in Delhi. Made
by pure malleable iron during Chandragupta II era (375-413 AD).
Rusting is practically zero and very negligible in the buried portion.

History
3200 B.C.E(Before Common Era)A copper frog, the oldest known casting in
existence, is cast in Mesopotamia.
233 B.C.Cast iron plowshares are poured in China.
500 A.D.or C.E(Common Era) Cast crucible steel is first produced in India,
but the process is lost until 1750, when Benjamin Huntsman reinvents it in
England.
1455Dillenburg Castle in Germany is the first to use cast iron pipe to transport
water.
1480Birth of Vannoccio Biringuccio (1480-1539), the "father of the foundry
industry," in Italy. He is the first man to document the foundry process in writing.
1709Englishman Abraham Darby creates the first true foundry flask for sand
and loam molding.

1750Benjamin Huntsman reinvents the process of cast crucible

steel in England.
1809Centrifugal casting is developed by A. G. Eckhardt of Soho,
England.
1896American Foundrymen's Association (renamed American
Foundrymen's Society in 1948 and now called the American
Foundry Society) is formed.
1897Investment casting is rediscovered by B.F. Philbrook of
Iowa. He uses it to cast dental inlays.

1947The Shell process, invented by J. Croning of Germany

during WWII, is discovered by U.S. officials and made public.
1953The Hotbox system of making and curing cores in one
operation is developed.
1958H.F. Shroyer is granted a patent for the full mold process,
the forerunner of the expendable pattern (lost foam) casting
process.
1968The Coldbox process is introduced by L. Toriello and J.
Robins for high production core making.
1971 The Japanese develop V-Process molding. This method
uses unbonded sand and a vacuum.
1971 Rheocasting is developed at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.

Iron Pillar ~ 400A.D

This iron pillar dating to

400 A.D., remains
standing today in Delhi,
India. Corrosion to the
pillar has been minimal
a skill lost to current
ironworkers.

Weight:6 tons
Height:7 m
MP: Casting & Forging
Remark: Corrosion resistance is negligible

Cast Iron (~800)

Chinese were the first in the production of

cast iron.

1750

Steel becomes the worlds most used

material.

Sectorwise Consumption of Castings

Product Mix

Various Types of Castings Produced

Various Types of Castings Produced

Metal Casting- Advantages

- Practically any material (ferrous/non-ferrous) can be cast .
- Very simple and inexpensive tooling required for making casting
molds
Ideal method for making trial production or production in small lots.
- Complex shapes with internal cavities or hollow sections can be
produced very easily.
- Castings are cooled uniformly from all sides
Elimination of direction properties.
- Large parts of any size and weight can be produced.
- Ideally suited for certain metals and alloys which can only be
processed by casting due to metallurgical considerations.
- Very competitive with other processes.

Metal Casting- Limitations & Applications

Limitations
- Parts made using normal sand casting has problems like dimensional
accuracy and surface finish .
Special casting methods like die casting has to be used.
- Sand casting process is labor intensive
Machine moulding and foundry mechanization should be done.
- Lots of manufacturing defects due to moisture present in sand castings.
Applications
- Cylindrical blocks, liners, machine tool beds, pistons, piston rings, mill rolls,
wheel housings, water supply pipes and specials, and bells.

Advantages
The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing
because of its many advantages.
1.Molten material can flow into very small sections so that
intricate shapes can be made by this process. As a result, many
other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can
be minimized or eliminated.
2.It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or
non-ferrous.
3.The necessary tools required for casting molds are very
simple and inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small
lot, it is the idealprocess.
4.There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can
only be processed this way.
5.Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the
casting process.

Limitations
1.Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the
castings made by sand casting processes are a limitation
to this technique. Many newcasting processes have
been developed which can take into consideration the
aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
Some of these processes are die casting process,
investment casting process, vacuum-sealed molding
process, and shell molding process.
2.The metal casting process is a labor intensive process

What is metal casting

Expendable Mold & Expendable Pattern

Investment Casting

Single Crystal Casting

Lost Foam Casting

Melt Spinning Casting

Expendable mold & Permanent Pattern

Ceramic Mold Casting

Permanent mould

Die casting - Hot chamber machine

Die casting - Cold chamber machine

Permanent Mold Contd

Centrifugal Casting

Squeeze Casting

Share of Casting Processes

Metals processed by casting
Sand casting 60%
Investment casting 7%
Die casting 9%
Permanent mold casting 11%
Centrifugal casting 7%
Shell mold casting 6%

Permanent mold

Expendable molds

- Die casting
hot chamber
cold chamber
-Centrifugal casting
-Squeeze casting

sand
shell
slurry
investment
lost wax
lost foam

Capabilities
Dimensions
sand casting - as large as you like
small - 1 mm or so
Tolerances
0.12 mm to 2.54 mm
Surface finish
die casting (1-3 mm)
sand casting (10-25 mm)

Metal Casting Terminology

Metal Casting Terminology cont..

Flask: A moulding flask is one which holds the sand mould intact. Depending
upon the position of the flask in the mould structure it is referred to by various
names such as drag-lower moulding flask cope-upper moulding flask and
cheek-intermediate moulding flask used in three-piece moulding. It is made
up of wood for temporary applications and more generally of metal for longterm use.
Pattern: Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some
modifications. The mould cavity is made with the help of the pattern.
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that
makes up the sand mould. In split pattern it is also the dividing line between
the two halves of the pattern.
Bottom board: This is a board normally made of wood which is used at the
start of the mould making. The pattern is first kept on the bottom board, sand
is sprinkled on it and then the ramming is done in the drag.

Metal Casting Terminology cont..

Moulding sand: It is the freshly prepared refractory material used
for making the mould cavity. It is a mixture of silica, clay and
moisture in appropriate proportions to get the desired results and it
surrounds the pattern while making the mould.
Backing sand: It is what constitutes most of the refractory material
found in the mould. This is made up of used and burnt sand.
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled
on the inner surface of the moulding cavity to give a better surface
finish to the castings.
Core: It is used for making hollow cavities in castings.
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould
into which the molten metal is poured.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal from the
pouring basin reaches the mould cavity. In many cases it controls the
flow of metal into the mould.

Metal Casting Terminology cont..

Runner: The passage ways in the parting plane through which
molten metal flow is regulated before they reach the mould cavity.
Gate: The actual entry point through which molten metal enters
mould cavity.
Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the mould cavity
Chill: Chills are metallic objects which are placed in the mould to
increase the cooling rate of castings to provide uniform or desired
cooling rate.
Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that
hot metal can flow back into the mould cavity when there is a
reduction in volume of metal due to solidification.

Terminology involved
Flask: for holding the mold intact
Cope: Upper half of mold flask
Drag: Bottom half of mold flask
Parting line: Separation line of the two mold halves
Pattern: replica of the part of be made, mold cavity is formed with pattern
Core: to create internal geometrical surfaces, hollow cavities
Pouring basin: funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which molten metal is
poured
Sprue: passage for the molten metal to reach mould cavity from pouring cup
Gate: actual entry point thru which molten metal enters mold cavity
Runner: passage way in the parting plane thru which molten metal reaches the mold
cavity
Riser: reservoir of molten metal for the casting to compensate for shrinkage during
solidification

Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally

baked, which is used to create openings and various shaped
cavities in the castings.
Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold
cavity to take care of its own weight and overcome the
metallostatic force.
Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and
gases.

Sand Mould Making Procedure

3
1

Sand Mould Making Procedure Contd..

First a bottom board is placed either on the moulding platform or

on the floor, making the surface even.

The drag moulding flask is kept upside down on the bottom

board along with the drag part of the pattern at the centre of the
flask on the board.

There should be enough clearance between the pattern and the

walls of the flask which should be of the order of 50 to 100 mm.

Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide
a non-sticky layer.

Freshly prepared moulding sand of requisite quality is now poured

into the drag and on the pattern to a thickness of 30 to 50 mm.

Sand Mould Making Procedure cont..

Rest of the drag flask is completely filled with the backup sand and
uniformly rammed to compact the sand.
The ramming of sand should be done properly so as not to compact
it too hard, which makes the escape of gases difficult, nor too loose
so that mould would not have enough strength.
After the ramming is over, the excess sand in the flask is completely
scraped using a flat bar to the level of the flask edges.
Now, with a vent wire which is-a wire of 1 to 2 mm diameter with a
pointed end, vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the
flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases
during casting solidification.
This completes the preparation of the drag.

Sand Mould Making Procedure cont..

The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern.

Using a slick, the edges of sand around the pattern is repaired and cope half of the
pattern is placed over the drag pattern, aligning it with the help of dowel pins.

The cope flask on top of the drag is located aligning again with the help of the pins.

The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the pattern.

A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance of about 50
mm from the pattern.

Also a riser pin if required, is kept at an appropriate place and freshly prepared
moulding sand similar to that of the drag along with the backing sand is sprinkled.

The sand is thoroughly rammed, excess scraped and vent holes are made all over
in the cope as in the drag.

Sand Mould Making Procedure cont..

The sprue pin and the riser pin are carefully withdrawn from the
flask.
Then, the pouring basin is cut near the top of the sprue.
The cope is separated from the drag and any loose sand on the
cope and drag removed.
Interface of the drag is blown off with the help of bellows.
Now, the cope and the drag pattern halves are withdrawn by
using the draw spikes and rapping the pattern all around to slightly
enlarge the mould cavity so that the mould walls are not spoiled by
the withdrawing pattern.

Sand Mould Making Procedure cont..

The runners and the gates are cut in the mould carefully without
spoiling the mould. Any excess or loose sand found in the runners
and mould cavity is blown away using the bellows.

Now, the facing sand in the form of a paste is applied all over the
mould cavity and the runners which would give the finished casting
a good surface finish.

A dry sand core is prepared using a core box. After suitable

baking, it is placed in the mould cavity.

The cope is replaced on the drag taking care of the alignment of

the two by means of the pins.

The mould now is ready for pouring.

Sand mold - opened

Sand mold - closed

Mixing moulding sand with binders & adhesives

Filling sand in moulding flasks

Melting furnace

Pouring molten liquid

Knock out

Heat treatment

Machining

Final products of casting

Casting Flow Chart

Sand Casting Process Flow

 Patterns
Materials used for pattern
Types of patterns

Pattern
- Pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the casting process
- Patterns are used to mold the sand mixture into the shape of the
casting.
- Made of wood, plastic, metal, POP, rubber, wax and polystyrene

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FUNCTIONS OF THE PATTERN

1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of
making a casting.
2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints
if the casting requires a core and need to be made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal
in the mold cavity may form a part of the pattern.
4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth
surfaces reduce casting defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost
of the castings.
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PATTERN MATERIALS
Some materials used for making patterns are:
Wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and
rubbers, wax, and resins.
The pattern material should be:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined
2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in
temperature and humidity
7. Available at low cost

82

Pattern Materials
Usual materials: wood, metal and plastics.
Wood
Most commonly used pattern material.
Varieties of woods: Pine, mahogany, teak, sal and deodar
Advantages
- Easily available
- Low weight
- Cheap
- Easy to shape
Disadvantages
- Absorbs moisture from moulding sand distortions/warpages and
dimensional changes occur.
- Proper seasoning and upkeep of wood is necessary for large scale
use.
83

Metals & Alloys: For large quantities of molds, better accuracy, finish
and higher pressures in ramming as in machine molding, metal
patterns are recommended even though costlier than wood.
Ex: cast iron, aluminum and copper alloys
Plastics: Combine the advantage of wood-like lightness, easy
machinability and economy with the wear-resistance and dimensional
stability of metals.
Sometimes used as wear resistant coating on wooden pattern
Ex: Epoxy resins
Polystyrene: Polystyrene or expanded Thermocole, which has special
property that gasifies on heating.
For single quantity castings like prototypes, it is very easy to make a pattern
which is not taken out but either burnt off (or) metal is poured through gating
directly into the mold without removing the pattern.
As the polystyrene gasifies leaving negligible residue , the casting formed is
sound.

84

Comparative Characteristics of Metallic Pattern Materials

Pattern metal

Advantages

Disadvantages

Aluminium alloys

Good machinability
High corrosion resistance
Low density
Good surface finish

Low strength
High cost

Grey cast iron

Good machinability
High strength
Low cost

Corrosion prone

Steel

Good surface finish

High strength

Corrosion prone

Brass & bronze

Good surface finish

High strength
High corrosion resistance

High cost

Lead alloys

Good machinability

High cost
Low strength

85

Pattern Materials based on Expected Life

Number of castings produced
before pattern equipment repair
Small castings
(under 600 mm)

Pattern material

2,000

Hard wood

6,000

Aluminum, plastic

100,000

Cast iron

Medium castings

1,000

Hard wood

(600 1,800 mm)

3,000

Aluminum, plastic

Large castings
(above 1,800 mm)

200

Soft wood

500

Hard wood metal

reinforced

86

Types of Patterns
1. Single piece pattern
2. Split/two piece pattern
3. Gated pattern
4. Cope and drag pattern
5. Loose piece pattern
6. Follow board Pattern
7. Sweep pattern
8. Skeleton pattern

87

1.Single Piece Pattern

Inexpensive and simplest type of pattern.
Made of single piece.
Used in cases where the job is simple and doesnt create withdrawal
problems.
Applications in very small scale production

88

2.Split/Two Piece Pattern

Mostly used for intricate castings.
Pattern is split into 2 halves: 1 part in drag and other in cope.
Split surface of the pattern is the parting plane of the mould.
Two halves of the pattern are aligned using the dowel pins fitted in
cope half which match precisely with holes made drag half.

Dowel Pins

89

3. Gated Pattern
Improved version of simple or single piece pattern.
Gating and runner system integrated in this pattern.
Hand cutting of runners and gates are eliminated
Productivity improvement of a moulder.
These are made of wood or metal and specially used for
mass productions of small castings
In mass production, a number of castings
are prepared in a single multicavity
mould by joining a group of patterns.
In such type of multicavity mould, gates or
runners for the molten metal are formed by
connecting parts between the individual
patterns
90

4. Cope and Drag Pattern

Similar to split or two piece pattern.
In addition to splitting the pattern, the cope and drag halves of the
pattern along with the gating and risering systems are attached
separately to the metal or wooden plates along with the alignment
pins.
The cope and drag moulds may be produced using these patterns
separately by two moulders but they can be assembled to form a
complete mould.
These types of patterns are used for castings which are heavy and
inconvenient for handling as also for continuous production.
91

92

5.Loose Piece Pattern

Used when the contour of the part is such that withdrawing the pattern from
the mould is not possible.
During moulding the obstructing part of the contour is held as a loose
piece.
After moulding is over, first the main pattern is removed and then the loose
pieces are recovered through the gap generated by the main pattern.
Moulding with loose pieces is a highly skilled job and is generally expensive
Should be avoided where possible.

93

6.Follow Board Pattern

Adopted for those castings where there are some portions which are
structurally weak and if not supported properly are likely to break under the
force of ramming.
Bottom board is modified as a follow board to closely fit the contour of
the weak pattern
support it during the ramming of the drag.
During the preparation of the cope, no follow board is necessary because
the sand which is compacted in the drag will support the fragile pattern.

94

7.Sweep Pattern
Used to sweep complete pattern by means of a plane sweep.
Used for generating large shapes which are axis-symmetrical
Ex. Bell shaped or cylindrical.
Greatly reduces the cost of a 3-dimensional pattern.
Suitable for large castings ex. bells for ornamental purposes which
are cast in pit molds.

95

96

8.Skeleton Pattern
Used for production of only few castings of large weight and size
Skeleton pattern made of wood is used for building final pattern which
is made by packing sand around the skeleton.
The desired form is obtained by removing the excess sand using a
strickle (foundry tool used to shape a mold in sand).
Skeleton depends upon the geometry of the workpiece.
Skeleton pattern used for very large castings required in small
quantities where large expense on complete wooden pattern is not
economical.

97

Skelton Pattern Contd..

98