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Fundamentals of CAD

CAD - Introduction

CAD involves any type of design activity which makes use of the
computer to develop, analyze or modify an engineering design.

All CAD systems are based on Interactive Computer Graphics (ICG).

ICG denotes a user-oriented system in which the computer is


employed to create, transform and display data in the form of pictures
or symbols.

Designer communicates data and commands to the computer through


any of the several input devices and methods.

Computer communicates with the user via an appropriate display


medium (CRT LCD Plasma LED).

Designer creates an image on the screen by entering commands to


call the desired sub-routine in the s/w stored in the computer.
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CAD - Introduction

Mostly, the image is constructed using the basic geometric elements.

2D points, lines, circles, arcs, etc.

3D box, cylinder, sphere, donut, etc.

Later, the image created can be modified as the designer wishes to.

Eg. Changing the size, move, rotate and other transformations.

Through these various manipulations, the required details of the image


are formulated.

Typical ICG system = Hardware + Software.

Hardware CPU, one or more workstations and peripheral devices


such as printers, plotters, etc.

Software Computer programs needed to implement graphics


processing on the system, Eg. AutoCAD.
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CAD - Introduction

Most Important ICG is one component of a CAD system.

The other major component is the human designer.

ICG is a tool used by the designer to solve the design problem.

In effect, the ICG system magnifies the powers of the designer.

This has been referred to as synergistic effect.

The designer performs the portion of the design process that is most
suitable to human intelligence skills (conceptualization, independent
thinking).

The computer performs the task best suited to its capabilities (Speed
of calculations, visual display, storage of large amounts of data).

The resulting system (ICG) exceeds the sum of its components.


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General Design Process

Shigley characterized the design process as an iterative procedure.

Six Identifiable Phases


Recognition of Need
Definition of Problem
Synthesis
Analysis and Optimization
Evaluation
Presentation
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General Design Process

Recognition of need

Realization by someone that a problem exists for which some corrective


action must be taken.

Identification of some defect in the current design by an engineer.

Perception of a new product marketing opportunity by a salesperson.

Definition of problem

Thorough specification of the item to be designed.

Specification includes physical and functional characteristics, cost, quality


and operating performance.

Synthesis, analysis and optimization are closely related and highly


iterative in the design process.

A certain part or sub-system of the overall system is conceptualized by the


designer, subjected to analysis, improved and redesigned.
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General Design Process

The process is repeated until the design has been optimized within the
imposed constraints.

Other parts or sub-systems are synthesized into the final overall system in
a similar iterative manner.

Evaluation

Measuring the design against the defined specifications.

Often requires the fabrication and testing of a prototype model to assess


the operating performance, quality, reliability and other criteria.

Presentation

Documentation of the design by means of drawings, materials


specifications, assembly lists, etc.

Essentially, documentation requires that a design data base be created.

Application of Computers for Design

Various design related tasks can be grouped into four functional areas:

Geometric modeling

Engineering analysis

Design review and evaluation

Automated drafting

These correspond to the last four phases Shigleys design process.

Geometric modeling corresponds to the synthesis phase, in which the


physical design project takes form on the ICG system.

Engineering analysis corresponds to analysis and optimization.

Design review and evaluation correspond to the evaluation step.

Automated drafting involves a procedure for converting the design


image data residing in the computer into a hard-copy.
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Application of Computers for Design


General Design Process

Computer Aided Design

Recognition of Need
Definition of Problem
Synthesis

Geometric Modeling

Analysis and Optimization

Engineering Analysis

Evaluation

Design review & Evaluation

Presentation

Automated Drafting
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Reasons for CAD Implementation

To increase the productivity of the designer.

Product and its subassemblies and parts can be visualized.

Reduced time in synthesizing, analyzing and documenting.

Results in lower design cost and shorter project completion time.

To improve the design quality.

Thorough engineering analysis

Larger number of design alternatives can be investigated.

Design errors are reduced to greater accuracy.

To improve communications.

Better engineering drawings, more standardization, better documentation.

To create a data base for manufacturing.

Geometries and dimensions, materials, bill of materials are created.


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Geometric Modeling

Concerned with the computer compatible mathematical description of


the geometry.

Mathematical description allows the image of the object to be


displayed and manipulated on an ICG terminal.

Software that provides geometric modeling capabilities must be


designed for efficient use both by the computer and designer.

Designer constructs the graphical image of the object in an ICG by


inputting three types of commands to the computer.

First type of command generates basic geometric elements such as


points, lines, circles, etc.

Second type of command is used to accomplish scaling, rotation or


other transformation of these elements.
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Geometric Modeling

Third type of command causes the various elements to be joined into


a desired shape of the object being created on the ICG system.

During this geometric modeling process, the computer

Converts the commands into a mathematical model

Stores it in the computer data base

Displays it as an image on the screen.

The model can subsequently be retrieved from the data files for
review, analysis or alteration.

There are several different methods of representing the object in


geometric modeling.

The basic form uses wire frames to represent the object.

In this form, the object is displayed by interconnecting lines.


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Geometric Modeling

Wire frame geometric modeling is classified into three types,


depending on the capabilities of the ICG system and are:

2D Two dimensional representation is used for a flat object.

2 D Goes beyond 2D capability by permitting a three-dimensional


object to be represented, as long as it has no side-wall details.

3D Full three dimensional modeling of a more complex geometry.

Even 3D wire frame representations are sometimes inadequate for


complicated shapes.

Wire frame models can be enhanced by several different methods.

First uses dashed lines to portray the rear (invisible) edges of the
object.

Second removal of hidden lines completely

less cluttered picture.


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Geometric Modeling

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Geometric Modeling

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Geometric Modeling

Most of the recent CAD software have an automatic hidden line


removal feature, while other systems require the user to identify.

Another enhancement of the wire-frame model involves providing a


surface representation which makes the object appear solid to the
viewer. But, the object is still stored in the computer as a wire-frame
model.

Most advanced method of geometric modeling is solid modeling in 3D.

Typically uses solid primitives (basic shapes) to construct the object.

Another feature of CAD systems is color graphics capability.

It is certainly possible to display more information on the graphics.

Colored images clarify components in an assembly, or highlight


dimensions, etc.
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Geometric Modeling

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Engineering Analysis

In any design project, some type of analysis is required.

It may involve evaluation of stress-strain, heat transfer rates or


dynamic behavior of the system.

Most of these evaluations involve solving of PDEs and computers can


be availed for such computations.

Mostly, commercial programs (ANSYS, FLUENT, ABACUS, etc.) can


be used to perform engineering analysis.

Often, specific programs need to be developed by the analysis group


to solve a particular design problem.

Two important examples of engineering analysis are:

Analysis of mass properties

Finite Element analysis


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Engineering Analysis

Analysis of mass properties is the analysis feature of a CAD system


that has the widest application.

It provides properties of a solid object being analyzed, such as

Surface area

Weight

Volume

Centre of gravity

Moment of inertia

For a plane surface or cross section of a solid object, the properties


include:

Perimeter & Area

Intertia properties (Area moment of intertia, etc.)


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Engineering Analysis

Probably, the most powerful analysis feature of a CAD system is the


Finite Element (FE) method.

With this technique, the object (domain) is divided into a large number
of finite elements (rectangular or triangular) shapes - Discretization.

Discretization also forms an interconnecting network of nodes.

By using computer, the entire object can be analyzed for stress-strain,


heat transfer and other characteristics by calculating the behavior at
each node.

By determining the interrelating behaviors of all the nodes, the


behavior of the entire system may be predicted and assessed.

Some CAD systems have automatic discretization capability.

User just defines certain parameters and it proceeds with computation.


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Engineering Analysis

Output of FE analysis is often best presented by the system in


graphical format on the screen for easy visualization by the user.

Eg. Stress-strain analysis results, i.e. deflected shape of the model is


superimposed over the unstressed model.

Color graphics are often used to aid the comparison.

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Design Review and


Evaluation
Checking the design
accuracy would be easier on graphics
terminal.

Semiautomatic dimensioning and tolerencing routines reduce


the possibility of dimensioning accuracies.

Designer can zoom in on part design details for close scrutiny.

A procedure called layering is often used in the design review.

Eg. Overlaying of the final shape of the machined part on the


top of the image of the rough casting. This ensures that
sufficient material is available on the casting for final
machining.

Another related procedure for design review is interference


checking.

It involves the analysis of an assembled structure in which

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Design Review and


Evaluation
One of the most interesting
features available on some CAD
systems is kinematics.

Available kinematics packages provide the capability to


animate the motion of simple mechanisms such as hinged
components and linkages.

This capability enhances the designers visualization of the


mechanism operation and helps to ensure against
interference with other components.

Without graphical kinematics on a CAD system, designers


must often resort to the use of pin-and-cardboard models to
represent the mechanism.

Commercial software packages are available to perform


kinematic analysis.

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Automated Drafting

Involves creation of hard-copy drawings directly from the CAD


data base.

CAD systems can increase the productivity in the drafting


function by roughly five times over manual drafting.

Following graphics features are extremely powerful and


useful.

Automatic dimensioning, Generation of cross-hatched areas,


Scaling of the drawing, Capability to develop sectional views
enlarged views of part details.

Ability to rotate or other transformations of the image are of


significant assistance in drafting. (eg. Oblique, isometric and
perspective views)

Most CAD systems are capable of generating as many as six

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Parts Classification and


Coding
In addition to the four CAD
functions, yet another important
feature of the CAD data base is that it can be used to develop
a parts classification and coding system.

Parts classification and coding involves the grouping of similar


part designs into classes, and relating the similarities by
means of a coding scheme.

Designers can use the classification and coding system to


retrieve the existing part designs rather than always
redesigning new parts.

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Creating Manufacturing Data


Base
We have seen the different
ways (Four Functions of CAD) by
which CAD systems can increase the productivity of the
design department.

Another important reason for using CAD systems is that it


offers the opportunity to create the data base needed to
manufacture the product.

In conventional design process, draftsmen prepared the Engg.


Drawings.

Then, the manufacturing engineers used the engineering


drawings to develop the process plan (eg. Route sheets).

Activities related to designing the product were separated


from that associated with process planning a two step
procedure.

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Creating Manufacturing Data


Base
The goal of CAD/CAM is not
only to automate certain phases
of design and certain phases of manufacturing, but also to
automate the transition from design to manufacturing.

Manufacturing data base is an integrated CAD/CAM data


base.

It includes all the data on the product generated during


design (geometry data, bill of materials and parts list,
material specification, etc. as well as additional data required
for manufacturing).

Most of these additional data required is based on the product


design.

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Desirable CAD/CAM Integration

Ref.: Groover, CAD/CAM

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Benefits of CAD

Only some of the CAD benefits are measurable.

Others are intangible reflected in improved work quality,


more pertinent and usable information and improved control.

Productivity Improvement in Design

Increased productivity translates a firm into a more


competitive position, as it will reduce staff requirements on a
given project.

It leads to lower costs in addition to improving response time


on projects.

Typical productivity improvement ratio for a


designer/draftsman is usually from 3:1 to 10:1.

There are individual cases where productivity increased by a

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Benefits of CAD

Productivity improvement depends on:

Complexity of the engineering drawing

Level of details required in the drawing

Degree of repetitiveness in the designed parts

Degree of symmetry in the parts

Extensiveness of library of commonly used entities.

Shorter Lead Times

CAD is inherently faster than the traditional design process.

It also speeds up the task of preparing reports and lists, that


are otherwise normally done manually.

Accordingly, it is possible with a CAD system to produce a


finished set of component drawings and the associated
reports in a relatively short time.

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Benefits of CAD

Shorter lead times in design results in shorter elapsed time


between receipt of a customer order and delivery of the final
product.

Design Analysis

Design analysis routines help to consolidate the design


process into a more logical work pattern.

Rather than having a back-and-forth exchange between


design and analysis groups, the same person can perform the
analysis while remaining at a CAD workstation.

This helps to improve the concentration of the designers,


since they are interacting with their designs in a real-time
sense.

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Benefits of CAD

There is a time saving by the use of computerized analysis


routines, both in designer time and in elapsed time.

This saving results from the rapid response of the design


analysis and also from queuing time between the designers
board to the analysts queue and back again. An example

In GE, while designing T700 jet engine, weight reduction was an


important design consideration.

During the design of the engine, weight of each component for


each design alternative must be determined.

This had been done manually by dividing each part into simple
geometrical shapes so as to conveniently compute the volumes
and weights.

Through the use of CAD and its mass properties analysis, the
mass properties were obtained in 25% of the total time formerly

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Benefits of CAD

Since alterations in preliminary designs are generally easier


to make and analyze with a CAD graphics system, more
design alternatives can be explored and compared in the
available development time.

Fewer Design Errors

CAD systems provide an intrinsic capability for avoiding


design, drafting and documentation errors.

Human errors that occur during manual data compilation for


preparation of a bill of materials are virtually eliminated.

One key reason for such accuracy no manual handling of


information is required once the initial model has been
developed.

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Benefits of CAD

Errors are further avoided, because CAD systems can perform


time-consuming repetitive duties (multiple symbol placement,
etc.) at high speeds with consistent and accurate results.

Still more errors can be avoided by programming the CAD


system to question an input that may be erroneous. Eg. A
tolerence of 0.00002 in ?

Success of this checking would depend on the ability of the


CAD system designers to determine what input is likely to be
incorrect and hence, what to question.

Greater Accuracy in Design Calculations

High level of dimensional control, far beyond the levels of


manually attainable accuracy.

Mathematical accuracy is often to 16 significant decimal

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Benefits of CAD

Accuracy in 3D curved space designs is extremely high that


there is no real comparison.

Parts are labeled by the same recognizable nomenclature and


number throughout all drawings.

More accurate material and cost estimates and tighter


procurement scheduling.

These items are especially important in such cases as longlead-time material purchases.

Standardization of Design, Drafting and Documentation


Procedures

With CAD systems, drawings are standardized as they are


drawn; there is no confusion as to proper procedures because
the entire format is built into the system program.

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Benefits of CAD

Drawings are More Understandable

CAD system is equally expert at creating and maintaining


isometrics and oblique drawings as well as the simpler
orthographic views.

All drawings can be generated and updated with equal ease;


thereby, an up-to-date version of any drawing type can
always be made available.

Generally, ease of visualization of a drawing relates to the


projection used.

Orthographic views less comprehensible than isometrics.

Isometric view less understandable than a perspective view.

Most actual construction drawings are line drawings.

Addition of shading increases comprehension.

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Benefits of CAD

Improvement in visualization of images


of various drawing types and graphics
features
Ref.: Groover, CAD/CAM

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Benefits of CAD
Improved Procedures for Engineering Changes

Control and implementation of engg. changes is improved


with CAD design.

Original drawings and reports are stored the data base of CAD
system.

This makes them more accessible than documents kept in a


drawing vault.

They can be quickly checked against new information.

Since data storage is extremely compact, historical


information can easily be retained for easy comparison with
current design/drafting needs.

Benefits in Manufacturing

CAD data base is used for manufacturing planning and control

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Benefits of CAD

Assembly lists (generated by CAD) for production

Computer-aided inspection

Robotics planning

Group technology

Shorter manufacturing lead times through better scheduling

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Checklist of Potential Benefits of


CAD

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Checklist of Potential Benefits of


CAD

Ref.: Groover, CAD/CAM


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