Workshop

on
Dynamic Force Analysis & Vibration in
Machines
@
The Kauvery College of Engineering , Salem636453

Dr. Moorthy Govindaraj

Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Velammal Institute of Technology, Chennai- 601204

Vibration
It is an everyday
phenomenon
we meet on everyday life

Vibration
Useful Vibration

Harmful vibration

Compressor

Noise
Testing

Destruction
Wear

Ultrasonic
cleaning
Fatigue

Vibration Problems in Industry- Indian

Scenario
Process industries in our country utilize a large number of rotating and
reciprocating machines.
Run continuously for 24 hours a day and for several months at a stretch.
Process industries include sugar, cement, paper, steel, non-ferrous, power,
chemical and fertilizer plants.
More than 1200 of them in our country.
Their productivity, for the country as a whole runs to several crores of rupees
per annum. If any one or more of machines in these plants fail, the productivity
loss incurred by the industries is colossal.
Machines include compressors, pumps, turbines, diesel engines, gear boxes and
electrical motors.

Vibration Problems in Industry- Indian

Scenario
Most of the symptoms of malfunctioning of the machines are indicated by
the vibration signals which are obtained at site.
With the availability of vibration transducers along with real time
analysers, nowadays, it is easy to record these signals.
This approach has been very handy since the instruments are user
friendly and are available at affordable cost.
But the fall out of this facility is the mushrooming of ill qualified and ill
trained Engineers with no exposure to basic vibration concepts.
There are more than 200 groups of Engineers doing condition monitoring
today.
All of them do monitoring, but many are not equipped to suggest
remedies on scientific lines.

Vibration Problems in Industry- Indian

Scenario
Besides another major problem faced by the industry is connected with the
expansion of the existing plant by increasing the capacity of the units by
altering the process parameters like flow, speed, pressure and drive horse
power.
Quite often the units are reoriented to optimise the space and euipment.
All these, invariably, results in changing the dynamic behaviour of the
machines and coupling between different rotating units ( rotor dynamics) and
structures in which they are located.( Structural Dynamics)

Vibration Problems in Industry- Indian

Scenario
Remedies for these two set of problems:
One on exising machines and another on modified units, needs
a clear understanding of basic subjects like strength of materials,
theory of machines, and machine design.
For more complicated cases finite element analysis is needed.

What is Vibration?

What is Vibration?

Scientific Definition
Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of
time

What is Vibration?

Scientific Definition
Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of
time

Engineering Definition
Deals with the relationship between forces and
oscillatory motion of mechanical systems

Why is Vibration Important?

The Tacoma Narrows
Bridge Disaster

November 7, 1940

Why is Vibration
Important?

Amplitude of oscillation reached 14 feet!

What was the cause?

Vortex Shedding

Caused Wind-Induced Vibration (?)

What is vibration?

Vibrations are oscillations of a system about

an equilbrium position.

Oscillatory Motion

Oscillatory Motion
If one displaces a system from a
position of stable equilibrium
the system will move back and
forth, that is, it will oscillate
about the equilibrium position.
The maximum displacement from
the equilibrium is called the
amplitude, A.

24

Oscillatory Motion
The time, T, to go through one
complete cycle is called the
period. Its inverse is called
frequency and is measured
in hertz (Hz).

1
f
T
1 Hz is one cycle per second.

25

Simple Harmonic Motion

For many systems, if the amplitude is small
enough, the restoring force F satisfies Hooks
law.

F kx
Hooks law

The motion of such a system is called simple

harmonic motion
(SHM)

26

Simple Harmonic Motion

As usual, we can compute the motion of the
object using Newtons 2nd law of motion,
F=ma
2

d x
kx m 2
dt

The solution of this differential equation gives

x as function of t.

27

Simple Harmonic Motion

Suppose we start the system
displaced from equilibrium
and then release it. How will
the displacement x depend on
time, t ?
Lets try a solution of the form

x A cos t
28

Simple Harmonic Motion

Note that at t = 0, x = A.
A is also the amplitude. Why?
To find the value of we need
to verify that our tentative solution

x A cos t
is in fact a solution of the
equation of motion.
29

Simple Harmonic Motion

x A cos t
dx
.
A sin t
dt
d 2x
2
A cos t
2
dt
therefore

d 2x
kx m 2
dt
2
kA cos t m( A cos t )
30

Simple Harmonic Motion

Frequency and Period
. We can get a solution
if we set k = m 2, that is,

By definition, after a
period T later the motion
repeats, therefore:

x A cos t A cos(t T )
31

Simple Harmonic Motion

Frequency and Period
.
The equation

A cos t A cos(t T )
A cos t cos T A sin t sin T
can be solved if we set
T = 2 , that is, if we set

2 f
T
is called the angular frequency

32

Simple Harmonic Motion

Frequency and Period
. For simple harmonic motion
of the mass-spring system,
we can write

1
m
T 2
f
k

33

Simple Harmonic Motion

.

Phase
It is easy to show that

x A cos(t )

is a more general solution of the equation of motion.

The symbol is called the phase. It defines the
initial displacement
x = A cos

34

Simple Harmonic Motion

Position, Velocity, Acceleration
Position

x A cos(t )
Velocity

v A sin(t )
Acceleration

a A cos(t )
2

35

Simple Harmonic Motion

Position, Velocity, Acceleration

x A cos(t )

v A sin(t )

a A cos(t )
2

36

Applications of
SHM

Vertical Mass-Spring System

At equilibrium
upward force of spring
=
weight of block
Gravity changes only
the equilibrium position

38

The Torsional Oscillator

A fiber with torsional
constant provides
a restoring torque:

The angular frequency
depends on and the
rotational inertia I:

Newtons 2nd law for this

device is

I
39

The Pendulum
A simple pendulum
consists of a point
mass suspended
from a massless
string!
Newtons 2nd law for
such
I
a system is
2

d
mgL sin I 2
dt

The motion is not simple harmonic. Why?

40

The Pendulum
If the amplitude of a
pendulum is small
enough, then we
can write sin , in
which case the
motion becomes
simple harmonic

d
mgL I 2
dt
2

This yields

mgL

I
41

The Pendulum
For a point mass, m, a
distance L from a
pivot, the rotational
inertia is I = mL2.
Therefore,

mgL

g
L
and

2
L
T
2

g
42

Damped Harmonic
Motion

Damped Harmonic Motion

Non-conservative forces, such as friction,
cause the amplitude of oscillation to
decrease.

x A cos(t )
44

Damped Harmonic Motion

In many systems, the non-conservative force
(called the damping force) is approximately
equal to
Where C is a constant giving the damping
strength and v is the velocity. The motion of
such a mass-spring system is described by

45

Damped Harmonic Motion

The solution of the differential equation

is of the form

For simplicity, we take x = A at t = 0, then = 0.

x(t ) Ae

t /

46

cos(t )

Damped Harmonic Motion

If one plugs the solution into Newtons 2nd law, one will find the damping time
and the angular frequency, where

x(t ) Ae

t /

cos(t )

is the un-damped angular frequency

2m / b
0 1 1/(0 )
0 k / m
47

Damped Harmonic Motion

The larger the damping constant b the shorter the damping time . There are
3 damping regimes:
(a) Under damped
(b) Critically damped
(c) Over damped

x(t ) Ae

t /

cos(0t 1 1/(0 ) )
2

48

Example Resonance
November 7, 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge
disaster. At about 11:00 am the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge, near
Tacoma, Washington
collapsed after hitting
its resonant frequency.
The external driving
force was the wind.
http://www.enm.bris.ac.uk/anm/tacoma/tacnarr.mpg
49

Summary

Systems that move in a periodic fashion are said to

oscillate. If the restoring force on the system is
proportional to the displacement, the motion will
be simple harmonic.
The mass-spring system is a simple model that
undergoes simple harmonic motion.
If the presence of non-conservative forces the
system will undergo damped harmonic motion.
If driven, the system can exhibit resonant motion.

50

Vibration parameters
All mechanical systems
can be modeled by
containing three basic
components:
spring, damper, mass

When these components are subjected to constant force,

they react with a constant
displacement, velocity and acceleration

Free vibration

When a system is initially disturbed by a displacement,

velocity or acceleration, the system begins to vibrate with
a constant amplitude and frequency depend on its
stiffness and mass.
This frequency is called as natural frequency, and the
form of the vibration is called as mode shapes

Equilibrium pos.

Forced Vibration
If an external force applied to a
system, the system will follow the
force with the same frequency.

However, when the force

frequency is increased to the
systems natural frequency,
amplitudes will dangerously
increase in this region. This
phenomenon called as
Resonance

Basic Concepts
Every object has:

Frequencies at which it likes to

vibrate

Characteristic geometries of
vibration

Modeling Vibration
The Ingredients:

1.
2.

Inertia (stores kinetic energy)

Elasticity (stores potential
energy)

Realistic Addition:
3.

Energy Dissipation

Modeling Vibration
The Ingredients:

1.
2.

Inertia (stores kinetic energy)

Elasticity (stores potential
energy)

Realistic Addition:
3.

Energy Dissipation

Modeling Vibration
The Ingredients:

1.
2.

2
3

Inertia (stores kinetic energy)

Elasticity (stores potential
energy)

Realistic Addition:
3.

Energy Dissipation

Modeling Vibration
The Ingredients:

1.
2.

Inertia (stores kinetic energy)

Elasticity (stores potential
energy)

Realistic Addition:
3.

Energy Dissipation

Modeling Vibration
x

The Ingredients:
1.
2.

Mass, m
Stiffness, k

Realistic Addition:
3.

Damping, c

m
k

How is this
model
useful?

Basic Concepts

Resonance

Basic Concepts

Resonance
A vibration

of large amplitude
Occurs when an object is forced near its natural
frequency

Resonance

A vibration of large amplitude

Occurs when an object is forced near its natural
frequency

Object

Resonance

A vibration of large amplitude

Occurs when an object is forced near its natural
frequency
x

m
e

Object

Model

Vibration Absorbers

Used to eliminate vibration of an object

Object

(that vibrates too much)

Vibration Absorbers

Used to eliminate vibration of an object

Vibration
Absorber

(absorbs vibration)

Object

(that vibrates too much)

Vibration Absorbers

Used to eliminate vibration of an object

Vibration
Absorber

Choose these to
eliminate motion
of object.

Object

(that vibrates too much)

Watch these
Bridge collapse:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j-zczJXSxnw
Hellicopter resonance:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0FeXjhUEXlc
Resonance vibration test:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV_UuzEznHs
Flutter (Aeordynamically induced vibration) :
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OhwLojNerMU

Modelling of vibrating
systems

Lumped (Rigid)
Modelling

Numerical Modelling
Element-based
methods
(FEM, BEM)

Statistical and Energybased methods

(SEA, EFA, etc.)

Degree of Freedom (DOF)

Mathematical modeling of a physical system requires the
selection of a set of variables that describes the behavior
of the system.
The number of degrees of freedom for a system is the
number of kinematically independent variables necessary
to completely describe the motion of every particle in the
system
DOF=1

DOF=2

Single degree of freedom (SDOF)

Multi degree of freedom (MDOF)

Equivalent model of systems

Example 1:

Example 2:

SDOF

MDOF

DOF=1

DOF=2

Elastic elements as springs

CONTENT
Fundamentals of vibrations
Single degree-of-freedom systems
Free vibrations
Harmonic forcing functions
General forcing functions
Two degree-of-freedom systems
Free vibrations
Forced vibrations
Multi degree-of-freedom systems
Free vibrations
Forced vibrations

Mechanical vibrations

Defined as oscillatory motion of bodies in response to disturbance.

Oscillations occur due to the presence of a restoring force
Vibrations are everywhere:

Vehicles: residual imbalance of engines, locomotive wheels

Rotating machinery: Turbines, pumps, fans, reciprocating machines
Musical instruments

Excessive vibrations can have detrimental effects:

Human body: eardrums, vocal cords, walking and running

Noise
Loosening of fasteners
Tool chatter
Fatigue failure
Discomfort

When vibration frequency coincides with natural frequency, resonance occurs.

Mechanical vibrations

Aeolian, wind-induced or vortex-induced vibration of the Tacoma Narrows

bridge on 7 November 1940 caused it to resonate resulting in catastrophic
failure.

Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse Video

Mechanical vibrations

Millennium Bridge, London: Pedestrians, in reaction to lateral

motion of the bridge, altered their gait and started behaving in
concert to induce the structure to resonate further (forced periodic
excitation):
Video link

Fundamentals

In simple terms, a vibratory system involves the transfer of

potential energy to kinetic energy and vice-versa in alternating
fashion.

When there is a mechanism for dissipating energy (damping) the

oscillation gradually diminishes.

In general, a vibratory system consists of three basic components:

A means of storing potential energy (spring, gravity)
A means of storing kinetic energy (mass, inertial component)
A means to dissipate vibrational energy (damper)

Fundamentals

This can be observed with a pendulum:

At position 1: the kinetic energy is zero and the potential energy is

mgl(1 cos )

At position 2: the kinetic energy is at

its maximum

At position 3: the kinetic energy is

again zero and the potential energy at
its maximum.

In this case the oscillation will eventually

stop due to aerodynamic drag and pivot
friction HEAT

Degrees of Freedom

The number of degrees of freedom : number of independent coordinates

required to completely determine the motion of all parts of the system at
any time.

Examples of single degree of freedom systems:

Degrees of Freedom

Examples of two degree of freedom systems:

Degrees of Freedom

Examples of three degree of freedom systems:

Discrete and continuous systems

Many practical systems small and large or structures can be describe with a finite
number of DoF. These are referred to as discrete or lumped parameter systems

Some large structures (especially with continuous elastic elements) have an infinite
number of DoF These are referred to as continuous or distributed systems.

In most cases, for practical reasons, continuous systems are approximated as discrete
systems with sufficiently large numbers lumped masses, springs and dampers. This
equates to a large number of degrees of freedom which affords better accuracy.

Classification of Vibration

Free and Forced vibrations

Free vibration: Initial disturbance, system left to vibrate without influence of external forces.
Forced vibration: Vibrating system is stimulated by external forces. If excitation frequency
coincides with natural frequency, resonance occurs.

Undamped and damped vibration

Undamped vibration: No dissipation of energy. In many cases, damping is (negligibly) small

(steel 1 1.5%). However small, damping has critical importance when analysing systems at
or near resonance.

Damped vibration: Dissipation of energy occurs - vibration amplitude decays.

Linear and nonlinear vibration

Linear vibration: Elements (mass, spring, damper) behave linearly. Superposition holds double excitation level = double response level, mathematical solutions well defined.

Nonlinear vibration: One or more element behave in nonlinear fashion (examples).

Superposition does not hold, and analysis technique not clearly defined.

Classification of Vibration

Deterministic

and Random vibrations

Deterministic vibration: Can be described by implicit mathematical

function as a function of time.

Random vibration: Cannot be predicted. Process can be described by

statistical means.

Vibration Analysis

Input (excitation) and output (response) are wrt time

Response depend on initial conditions and external forces
Most practical systems very complex (mathematical) modelling requires simplification
Procedure:

Mathematical modelling
Derivation / statement of governing equations
Solving of equations for specific boundary conditions and external forces
Interpretation of solution(s)

Vibration Analysis

Harmonic Motion

Harmonic motion: simplest form of periodic motion

(deterministic).

Pure sinusoidal (co-sinusoidal) motion

The motion of mass m is described by:

Eg: Scotch-yoke mechanism rotating with angular

velocity - simple harmonic motion:

x Asin( ) A sin( t )

Its velocity and acceleration are:

dx
A cos( t )
dt
and
d 2x
dt 2

2 A sin( t ) 2 x

Harmonic Motion

Sinusoidal motion emanates from cyclic motion

The rotating vector generates a sinusoidal and a co-sinusoidal components

along mutually perpendicular axes.

Can be represented by a vector (OP) with a magnitude, angular velocity

(frequency) and phase.

Harmonic Motion

Often convenient to represent sinusoidal and co-sinusoidal components

(mutually perpendicular) in complex number format

Where a and b denote the sinusoidal (x) and co-sinusoidal (y) components
a and b = real and imaginary parted of vector X

Harmonic Motion
Definition of terms:

Cycle: motion of body from equilibrium position extreme position equilibrium position
extreme position in other direction equilibrium position .

Amplitude: Maximum value of motion from equilibrium. (Peak Peak = 2 x amplitude)

Period: Time taken to complete one cycle

= circular frequency

Frequency: number of cycles per unit time.

1
f
2
: radians/s

f Hertz (cycles /s)

Harmonic Motion

Phase angle: the difference in angle (lead or lag) by which two harmonic motions of the same
frequency reach their corresponding value (maxima, minima, zero up-cross, zero down-cross)

Harmonic Motion

Phase angle: the difference in angle (lead or lag) by which two harmonic motions of the same
frequency reach their corresponding value (maxima, minima, zero up-cross, zero down-cross)

Harmonic Motion

Natural frequency: the frequency at which a system vibrates without external forces after an initial
disturbance. The number of natural frequencies always matches the number of DoF.

Beats: the effect produced by adding two harmonic motions with similar (close) frequencies.

x1 A sin( t )

x2 A sin( t t )

xt x1 x2 A [sin( t ) sin( t t )]
M N
M N
Since sin M sin N 2 sin
cos
2
2
t
t
xt 2A sin t cos

2
Eg: =40 Hz and = -0.075

In mechanical vibratory systems, beats occur when the (harmonic) excitation (forcing) frequency is
close to the natural frequency.

Harmonic Motion

Octave: doubling of any quantity. Used mainly for frequency.

Octave band (frequency): maximum is double of minimum. Eg: 64 128 Hz, 1000 2000 Hz.
Decibel: defined as 10 x log(power ratio)

P0

dB 10Log

In electrical systems (as in mechanical vibratory systems) power is proportional to the value squared hence:

X 0

dB 20Log

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

Many vibratory systems not harmonic but often periodic

Any periodic function can be represented by the Fourier series infinite sum of sinusoids and cosinusoids.

ao
a1 cos( t ) a2 cos( 2t ) ........
2
b1 sin( t ) b2 sin( 2t ) .......

x( t )

ao
[an cos( nt ) bn sin( nt )]
2 n 1

To obtain an and bn the series is multiplied by cos(nt) and sin(nt) respectively and integrated over
one period.

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

Example:

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

Example:

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

As for simple harmonic motion, Fourier series can be expressed with complex numbers:

eit cos( t ) i sin( t )

e it cos( t ) i sin( t )
eit e it
cos( t )
2
eit e it
sin( t )
2i

The Fourier series:

ao
x( t ) [an cos( n t ) bn sin( n t )]
2 n1
Can be written as:

ei t e i t
ao ei t ei t
x( t ) an
b

2 n 1
2
2i

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

Defining the complex Fourier coefficients

cn

an ibn
2

and

cn 1

The (complex) Fourier series is simplified to:

x( t )

cn eint

an ibn
2

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

ao
x( t ) [an cos( n t ) bn sin( n t )]
2 n1

The Fourier series is made-up of harmonics.

Their amplitudes and phases are defined as:

An ( an2 bn2 )
bn

an

n atan

harmonics

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

The amplitudes (magnitudes) and phases of the harmonics can be plotted as a function of frequency
to form the frequency spectrum of spectral diagram:

An

Free undamped vibration single DoF

Recall: Free vibrations system given initial disturbance and oscillates free of
external forces.

Undamped: no decay of vibration amplitude

Single DoF:

mass treated as rigid, limped (particle)

Elasticity idealised by single spring
only one natural frequency.

The equation of motion can be derived using

Newtons second law of motion

DAlemberts Principle,
The principle of virtual displacements and,
The principle of conservation of energy.

Free undamped vibration single DoF

Using Newtons second law of motion to develop the equation of motion.

1.

Select suitable coordinates

2.

Establish (static) equilibrium position

3.

Draw free-body-diagram of mass

4.

Use FBD to apply Newtons second law of motion:

Rate of change of momentum = applied force

F( t )
As m is constant

F( t ) m
For rotational motion

d dx( t )
m

dt
dt
d 2 x( t )

mx
&&

M ( t ) J&
&

For the free, undamped single DoF system

F( t ) kx mx
&&
or
mx
&& kx 0

dt

Free undamped vibration single DoF

Principle of conservation of energy:

No energy is lost due to friction or other energy-dissipating mechanisms.

If no work is done by external forces, the system total energy = constant
For mechanical vibratory systems:

KE PE cons tan t
or
d
KE PE 0
dt

Since

1 2
KE mx
&
2
then

and

d 1 2 1 2
& kx 0
mx
dt 2
2
or
mx
&& kx 0

1
PE kx 2
2

Free undamped vibration single DoF

The solution to the differential eqn. of motion.

As we anticipate oscillatory motion, we may propose a solution in the form:

x( t ) Acos( n t ) B sin( n t )
or
x( t ) Aeint Be int
alternatively,if we let s in
x( t ) C e st

By substituting for x(t) in the eqn. of motion:

C( ms 2 k ) 0
sin ce c 0,
ms 2 k 0
and
s in
or

k
m

Characteristic equation
k
m

roots eigenvalues

Free single DoF vibration + viscous damping

Recall: viscous damping force velocity:

F cx&

c damping cons tan t or coefficient Ns / m

Applying Newton' s second law of motion to obtain the eqn.of motion :

mx
&& cx& kx or mx
&& cx& kx 0
If the solution is assumed to take the form :
x( t ) Ce st

where s in

then : &
x( t ) sCe st and &
x(
& t ) s 2Ce st
Substituting for x, &
x and &
x&in the eqn.of motion
ms 2 cs k 0
The root of the characteristic eqn. are :
2

c c 2 4mk
c
c
s1,2

2m
2m 2m
The two solutions are :
x1( t ) C1e s1t

and

x2 ( t ) C2e s2t

Free single DoF vibration + viscous damping

The general solution to the Eqn. Of motion is:

x( t ) C1e s1t C2 e s2t

or

2
c
c k
t
2m 2m m
e

x( t ) C1

C2 e

where C1 and C2 are arbitrary cons tan ts

det er min ed from the initial conditions .

c c 2

2m 2m

Free single DoF vibration + viscous damping

Critical damping (cc): value of c for which the radical in the general solution is zero:
2

cc

2m

k
0
m

k
2mn 2 km
m

cc 2m

or

Damping ratio (): damping coefficient : critical damping coefficient.

c
cc

c
c cc

n
2m cc 2m

or

The roots can be re written :

2

c
c
s1,2

2m 2m
And the solution becomes :
x( t ) C1

2 1 t

k
2
1 n
m

2
1 nt

C2 e

The response x(t) depends on the roots s 1 and s2 the behaviour of the system is dependent
on the damping ratio .

Free single DoF vibration + viscous damping

2
d

Xe nt

Exponentially decaying harmonic free SDoF vibration with viscous damping .

Underdamped oscillatory motion and has important engineering applications.

Free single DoF vibration + viscous damping

Underdamped ( 0 )

Overdamped ( 1 )
Critically
damped ( 1 )

Underdamped ( 1 )

2
n

2
d

Critically damped systems have lowest required damping for aperiodic motion and mass returns to
equilibrium position in shortest possible time.