Manufacturing Processes

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Amrita Priyadarshini

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Lecture #
Joining and Fastening processes

What is Welding?

Joining
(Based on mechanism of bonding)
Mechanical bonding
Temporary: screws
Permanent: rivets, shrink fits
Atomic bonding
Solid state: forge, friction
Liquid state/ fusion
Chemical: Gas, Thermit
Electric
Arc
Induction
Resistance

Solid/liquid state: brazing, soldering

Joining
(Based on mechanism of bonding)
Autogenous
No filler
Solid phase welding/ resistance welding
Homogenous
Filler used of same composition of that of the base metal
Arc, gas, thermit
Heterogeneous
Filler of different composition used
Soldering, brazing
Iron+Silver- insoluble; filler cu+Sn souble in both

Weld terms

Backing: support provided at the root

Base metal: metal to be joined
Bead: metal added during single pass
Crater: depression in the weld metal pool at
the point where arc strikes base metal
Deposition rate: rate at which weld metal is
deposited

 Filet weld: corner of joints

Penetration: depth upto which the weld metal
combines with the base metal, as measured
from the top surface of the joint
Puddle: portion of the weld joint that melts by
heat of welding
Root: point at which two pieces to be joined is
nearest

 Tack weld: used to temporarily hold the two

pieces together during welding
Torch: for mixing fuel and oxygen in gas
welding
Weld face: exposed surface of the weld
Weld metal: metal that is solidified at the jointcan be only base metal or base metal+filler
Weld pass: single movement of welding torch
or electrode along the length of joint

Root opening and Bevel

Root opening is
the separation
between the
work pieces at
the joint root
Bevel
(chamfer) is an
angular edge
preparation

The weld joint and quality of welding

There are three distinct zones formed in a typical weld joint.
Fusion zone
The area of base metal and filler metal that has been completely melted
Weld interface
A thin area of base metal that was melted or partially melted but did not
mix with the filler metal
Heat affected zone
The surrounding area of base metal that did not melt, but was heated
enough to affect its grain structure

The metallurgy and properties of the heat affected and weld quality greatly depend on the
type of metals joined, the particular joining process, the filler metals used (if any), and
welding process available. Characteristics of a typical fusion weld zone in oxyfuel-gas and
arc welding is shown in Figure 12.

Factors governing Fusion welding

Characteristics of heat source
Nature of deposition of filler material in fusion
zone
Heat flow characteristics
Cooling of fusion zone

Heat source
Should release heat in an isolated zone
High temperature, high rate
Common sources of heat are

Chemical flame
Electric arc
Exothermic reaction
Electric resistance eating

Oxy-fuel gas welding

OFW is a general term used to describe any welding processes that uses a fuel
gas combined with oxygen to produce a flame.
This flame is the source of the heat that is used to melt the materials at the
joint.
The most common gas welding processes uses acetylene, is known as oxyacetylene gas welding (OAW).
OAW is used typically for structural-sheet metal fabrication, automotive
bodies and various repair works.
Type of flames on OAW
Different types of flames obtained from oxyacetylene welding are
Neutral flame: Acetylene and oxygen mix at the ratio of 1:1.
Oxidizing flame: A flame with excess oxygen is known as oxidising flame
Reducing flame: If oxygen is insufficient for full combustion, the flame is
known as a reducing or carburising flame

Fusion welding process

Consumable Electrode
SMAW Shielded Metal Arc Welding
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding
SAW Submerged Arc Welding

Non-Consumable Electrode
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
PAW Plasma Arc Welding

High Energy Beam

Electron Beam Welding
Laser Beam Welding

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW):

Formerly TIG Welding
No flux, uses an inert gas (Argon, Helium, etc)
Filler Rod
DC @ 200A or AC @ 500A (Best for aluminum)
Can weld a variety of metals
Contaminated Electrode problems
Excellent surface finish and weld quality
Portable
Versatile

Arc-Welding (Consumable Electrode):

Again, the heat necessary for fusion is derived from electrical energy
Electrode is consumed as process occurs (a filler)
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
Submerged arc welding (SAW)
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) (MIG)
Flux core arc welding (FCAW)
Electrogas welding (EGW)
Electroslag welding (ESW)

Electrogas welding (EGW):

A machine welding process
Vertical welding in one pass
Butt joints (edge to edge)
Flux-cored or shielding gas
Industrial applications
Reliable

Electroslag Welding (ESW):

Similar in application to EGW
Arc is between machine and work piece
Flux is added/melted by arc
Arc is only on at the outset of the welding pass
Not strictly an arc-welding process
Excellent penetration
Good for thick pieces
Many industrial apps

Electrode for Arc Welding

Electrode for Arc Welding

Electrodes are consumable and classified according
to:
Strength of the deposited weld metal
Current (AC / DC)
Type of coating

Identified by numbers and letters, or color code if

they are to small to imprint.

Electrode for Arc Welding

Typical coated-electrode dimensions:
From 6 to 18 in length;
From 1/16 to 5/16 in diameter.

Electrodes are sold by weight.

Selection and recommendations found in supplier
literature or reference handbooks.

Electrode for Arc Welding

Electrode for Arc Welding

TABLE27.2
TheprefixEdesignatesarcweldingelectrode.
Thefirsttwodigitsoffourdigitnumbersandthefirstthreedigitsoffivedigitnumbers
indicateminimumtensilestrength:
E60XX60,000
psiminimumtensilestrength
E70XX70,000
psiminimumtensilestrength
E110XX110,000
psiminimumtensilestrength
Thenexttolastdigitindicatesposition:
EXX1X
Allpositions
EXX2X
Flatpositionandhorizontalfillets
Thelasttwodigitstogetherindicatethetypeofcoveringandthecurrenttobeused.
Thesuffix(Example:EXXXXA1)indicatestheapproximatealloyinthewelddeposit:
A1
0.5%Mo
B1
0.5%Cr,0.5%Mo
B2
1.25%Cr,0.5%Mo
B3
2.25%Cr,1%Mo
B4
2%Cr,0.5%Mo
B5
0.5%Cr,1%Mo
C1
2.5%Ni
C2
3.25%Ni
C3
1%Ni,0.35%Mo,0.15%Cr
D1andD2
0.250.45%Mo,1.75%Mn
G
0.5%min.Ni,0.3%min.Cr,0.2%min.Mo,0.1%min.V,
1%min.Mn(onlyoneelementrequired)

Electrode Coating
Outside coating made of silicate binders and
powdered materials (oxides, carbonates, fluorides, metal alloys, and
cellulose)

Functions
Stabilize the arc
Generate gases to act as a sheild against surrounding atmosphere.
Control rate at which the electrode melts
Acts as flux to protect against formation of oxides, nitrides, and inclusions
Add alloying elements to the melt zone, enhance the properties of joint.

Electrode Coating

Coating

Main electrode

Electron-Beam Welding

Electron-Beam Welding
Heat is generated by high velocity narrow-beam
electrons. The kinetic energy of the electrons is
converted in heat as they strike workpiece.
Usually performed in a vacuum. The greater the
vacuum, the greater the penetration.

Electron-Beam Welding

Electron-Beam Welding
Electron beam welding (EBW)
EBW-HV: High vacuum
EBW-MV: Medium vacuum
EBW-NV: No vacuum

Electron-Beam Welding
Properties:
Workpiece can range from foil to 6 plate;
Depth to width ratio between 10 and 30;
Capacities or EBW guns range up to 100kW;
No flux, filler or shielding gas required;
Smaller heat affected zone;
Good quality weld;
Generates X-rays, hence periodic maintenance and monitoring
Weld speed as high as 40ft/min
Ex: Aircraft, missile, nuclear component, gears and shafts.

Laser-Beam Welding

Laser-Beam Welding
Laser-beam welding (LBW) utilizes a laser beam as
the heat source.
- Beam can be focused onto small area, it than has high energy for deeppenetrating capability.
- This process is suitable for welding deep in narrow joints with depth-towidth ratio raging from 4 to 10.
- Power level up to 100kW.
- Welding speed up to 250ft/min
- Can weld foil up to 1 plate
In automotive industry, its mostly use for welding transmission components

Laser-Beam Welding
Advantages of LBW over EBW
No vacuum required;
Laser beam can be shaped, manipulated and focused.
Easily automated;
Do no generate X-rays;
Better quality weld. Less tendency for incomplete fusion,
spatter, porosity ans distortion.

Laser-Beam Welding
Gillette Sensor razor cartridge
Made with Nd:YAG laser
Up to 3 million welds/hour

7 identical weld points/blade

Laser-Beam Welding
Comparison: LBW or EBW a) over arc welding b)

Weld joint, quality, and Testing

Weld Joint
Three distinct zones in weld joint:
1)Base metal
2)Heat-affected zone
3)Weld metal
Weld joint used without a filler is called autogenous.

Solidification of weld
The solidification process is similar to casting and begins with the formation of
columnar grains
These are relatively long and form parallel to heat flow therefore lie parallel to
the plane of the two components welded

Solidification of weld
Grain structure and size depend on the specific metal alloy, the welding
technique, and type of filler metal.
The weld begins in a molten state; has a cast structure Cooled slowly
Coarse grains Low strength, toughness, and ductility
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Solidification of weld
The resulting structure depends on the particular alloy, its composition, and the
thermal cycling to which the joint is subjected.
Preheating general weld area prior to welding can control cooling rates
Without preheating, heat produced during welding dissipates rapidly through rest
of parts being joined

Weld Quality

Weld Quality
Some things that could cause Discontinuities,
weaknesses in weld
Thermal cycling and microstructural changes
Inadequate or careless application
Poor training
Porosity
Slag inclusions
Incomplete fusion penetration
The Weld profile
Cracks

Weld Quality
Overlap & Undercut
Porosity
Gases released during melting of the weld area but
trapped during solidification
Chemical reactions
Contaminants

Weld Quality
Underfill, Crack & Incomplete fusion
Slag Inclusions
Oxides, fluxes and electrode-coating materials that are
trapped in the weld zone

Weld Quality
Residual Stress
Distortion, warping, and buckling of the welded parts
Stress-corrosion cracking
If portion of welded structure is removed from sawing or machining
Reduced fatigue life of the welded structure

Testing of welds
Types of tests:
Tension
Tension-shear
Bend
Fracture toughness
Corrosion and creep

Joint Design
Product should minimize number of welds
Weld locations should be selected to avoid excessive stresses and joining
locations
Components should fit properly prior to welding
Weld bead size should be kept to a minimum to conserve weld metal

Joint Design
Things to think about when welding:

Weld Quality

Solid State Welding- Joining at the interface

without fusion.
Solid State Bonding- Involves one of the
following phenomena:
Diffusion- Transfer of atoms across an interface.
Pressure- Plastic Deformation occurs at the interface.
Relative Interfacial Movements- Movements of the
contacting surfaces occur

Resistive Welding
Definition: Resistance welding covers a number of
processes in which the heat necessary is produced by
electrical current being passed through the materials being
welded.

Spot Welding
Two metals sheets are clamped together and current is sent
through the metal sheets.
Typically spot welds are characterized by a small round
discoloration and depression.

Spot Welding
This is called the weld nugget.
They are used extensively
in industry especially
automotive manufacture.

Spot Welding

Testing Spot Welds

4 types of spot weld tests.
Tension test: most common because it is cheap and easy
Cross-Tension test:
Twist test:

Both are good at finding flaws,

cracks and porosity in the weld
area

Peel test: Commonly used for thin sheets.

Testing Spot Welds

Seam Welding
Resistance Seam Welding (RSW) uses two wheels instead
of two electrode probes to create a long single weld.
The two sheets of metal
are passed through the
wheels while electrical
current is applied.

Seam Welding

High- Frequency Resistance

Welding
This is similar to seam welding except high electrical
frequency (up to 450 KHz) is used.
Typically it is used to create butt welded tubing.

Projection Welding
Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)
One of the metal sheets have one or more projections
embossed into it and causes weld nuggets to form at those
points.
After enough heat is created then the sheets are pressed
together.

Projection Welding

Flash welding
Flash Welding (FW)
This is sometimes referred to as flash butt welding
Heat is generated from the arc as the two pieces make
contact.
When sufficient heat is created the ends of the two pieces
of metal are pressed together.

Stud Welding
Stud Welding (SW)
A small part, typically a threaded rod, hanger or handle acts
as one of the electrodes.
The metal sheet acts as the other electrode and after enough
heat is generate the stud is pressed until a sufficient weld is
created.

Percussion Welding
Percussion Welding uses a capacitor to provide electrical
current instead of a transformer.
The advantage is that localized heat is created making this
type of welding ideal for parts that are next to heat
sensitive areas such as electronic assemblies.

Friction Welding

Friction Welding
Friction at the interface of the joining components
create enough heat to join the pieces.
One work piece is stationary while the other is
rotated at a high constant speed.

Friction Welding
The two members are brought together by an axial
force.
Once sufficient contact is established the rotating
member is stopped and axial force is increased.

Friction Welding
The pressure at the interface and the resulting
friction produce enough heat for a strong
joint to
form.
The Weld Zone depends on the following:
Amount of heat generated
Thermal Conductivity of the materials
Mechanical properties of the materials at elevated
temperatures.

The shape of the welded joint depends on the

rotational speed and axial pressure.

Inertia Friction Welding

The heat is supplied by the KE of a flywheel.
As friction slows the flywheel, the axial force is
increased.

Inertia Friction Welding

The weld is complete when the wheel comes
to a stop.
The timing for this sequence is extremely
important in order to produce a good quality
weld.

Linear Friction Welding

The interface of the components is subjected to a
linear reciprocating motion.

Linear Friction Welding

This process is capable of welding square or
rectangular components as well as round
parts
made out of metal and plastics.

Linear Friction Welding

One part is moved across the face of the other
part using a balanced reciprocating
mechanism.

Friction Stir Welding

A third body is rubbed against the surfaces to
be joined.
A rotating non-consumable probe is plunged
into the joint.

Friction Stir Welding

The contact pressures cause frictional heating,
raising the temperature to 230o to
260oC
The probe at the tip of the tool forces heating
and mixing of the material at the joint.

Friction Stir Welding

Successful applications have
been used for Aluminum,
Copper, Steel and Titanium.
Developments may be made in
uses for polymers and composite materials.
Used in the fields of aerospace,
automotive, shipbuilding, and
military.

Friction Stir Welding

Advantages:
High Quality
Minimal pores
Uniform material structure
Low distortion
Little microstructural changes
No shielding gases
No surface cleaning required
Thickness of weld in a single pass ranges from
1mm to 50mm

Explosion Welding
An explosive is used to provide the pressure
to join the components together.
The explosive is attached to the flyer plate which
strikes the mating component to produce a wavy
interface.

Explosion Welding
The impact mechanically interlocks the two
surfaces, which causes pressure welding by plastic
deformation.
The bond strength is very high.

Explosion Welding
The explosive may be a flexible plastic sheet
or cord or in a granulated or liquid form
which
is cast or pressed over the flyer plate.
Plates can be as large as 6m X 2m.
Pipes can also be joined to the holes of
header
plates by placing the explosive inside the tube,
and when detonated the
pipe expands joining
the pieces together.

Diffusion Bonding
Achieved by movement of atoms across the
interface (diffusion).
Temperatures are usually half of the absolute
melting temperature.

Diffusion Bonding
The bond interface usually has the same
physical and mechanical properties as the base
metal.
The strength depends on the pressure, temperature,
time of contact and cleanliness.
Electroplating the surface or applying a filler
metal will increase the strength of the bond.
The parts are usually heated in a furnace or by
electrical resistance.

Diffusion Bonding
Method used by blacksmiths when the made filled
gold (gold over copper)
Used for reactive metals and composite materials
such as metal-matrix composites.
Generally used for complex parts in low
quantities, but is now automated for moderatevolume production.
Equipment cost is in the range of $3 to $6 per
mm2

Diffusion Bonding/ Super

plastic Forming

Combines diffusion bonding with super plastic

forming to fabricate sheet-metal structures.
The Process:
1. The sheet metal is diffusion bonded
2. Formed into a die with stop-offs
3. The stop-off regions are expanded in a mold by air.

These structures have high stiffness to weight

ratio

Diffusion Bonding/ Super

plastic Forming

Diffusion Bonding/ Super

plastic Forming
Useful in aerospace and aircraft applications
First developed in the 1970s, currently more
advanced for titanium structure
Ti-6Al-4V and 7475-T6 are commonly used for
the titanium structures.
Various other alloys are used for aerospace
applications.

Mechanical Fastening Processes

Brazing
Brazing joining process where just the filler materials
heat is raised to its melting temperature to join materials
First used as far back as 3000 to 2000 B.C.
Filler material has a lower melting temperature than
components that you are joining.

Mechanical Fastening Processes

Brazing
Brazing uses a flux in order to
prevent oxidation during the
joining process
Factors that affect braze strength
Joint clearance
Joint area
The bond formed between
the filler material and the
base metal
Proper use of flux

Brazing
Various Methods
Torch uses oxyfuel thru a torch
Furnace parts preloaded with consumable
inserts then placed in furnace for uniform
heating
Induction Heats thru use of High freq AC
Dipping dips entire base material into
molten filler metal bath (used for very small
parts)

Mechanical Fastening Processes

Soldering
Main difference between soldering and Brazing lies
in Temperature.
Uses primarily tin-lead as filler material
Main use is for electronics which cant withstand
extreme heat of brazing.
Uses same techniques as brazing as well as that of
Wave soldering very useful for circuit boards.

Mechanical Fasteners
Preferred over other methods because of the
following:
Ease of manufacturing
Ease of assembly and transportation
Ease of disassembly, maintenance, part
replacement, or repair
Ease in creating designs that have movable joints
Lowers cost

Mechanical Fasteners
Hole Prep
Using different methods to create the hole produces
different characteristics
Hole with some residual stress is desirable, improves
fatigue life
Threaded Fasteners
Common bolts and screws
Rivets
Most common method of permanent and semipermanent
mechanical joining
Works by placing rivet through hole and deforming end

Mechanical Fasteners
Other Fastening Methods
Metal Stitching and stapling
Similar to ordinary stapling
Seaming
Folding two pieces of material together
Crimping
Physically forcing on piece onto another
Design
Use fewer, but larger, rather than many small
Fit between joined parts
Use standard sizes and keep holes away from edges or corners

Mechanical Fasteners

THE END