.

Electricity

People
Proved that lightning was
electricity by flying a kite in a
lightning storm
Helped people understand the
principles of electricity

anklinBenjamin

People

Invented the electrical

light bulb

homas Edison

People

Georg
Ohm

Georg Simon Ohm(16 March

1789 6 July 1854) was
aGermanphysicistand
mathematician. As a school
teacher, Ohm began his research
with the newelectrochemical cell,
invented by Italian
scientistAlessandro Volta. Using
equipment of his own creation,
Ohm found that there is a direct
proportionality between the
potential difference (voltage)
applied across a conductor and the

People

James
Prescott
Joule

James Prescott Joule(24 December

1818 11 October 1889) was an
Englishphysicist andbrewer, born
inSalford, Lancashire. Joule studied the
nature ofheat, and discovered its
relationship to mechanical work. This led
to thelaw of conservation of energy, and
this led to the development of thefirst
law of thermodynamics. TheSI derived
unitof energy, thejoule, is named for
James Joule. He worked withLord
Kelvinto develop the absolute scale
oftemperature. Joule also made

What is electricity?
Electricity is a form of energy
It is caused by a flow of tiny particles
called electrons through a material
Electricity is a flow of electric
charges along a wire

Types of charge
There are two types of charges : Positive charge :- These are made of
sub atomic particle proton.
Negative charge :- These are made
of negative sub atomic particle
electron.

S.I. unit of charge

The S.I. unit of charge is coulomb.
An electron posses a negative charge
of 1.5 x 10-19.
The S.I. unit of one coulomb is
equivalent to the charge containing
6.25 x 10-18.

Conductors and Insulators

Conductors
These substance
have the property to
conduct electricity
through them.
These have free or
loosely held
electrons which
helps in conducting
electricity.
Example copper.

Insulators
These substance have
the property to
obstruct the flow of
electricity.
These do not have
free electrons present
in them.
Example Rubber
Insulation.

Electric potential
When a small electric charge is
placed in the electric field due to
another charge, it experiences a
force. So, work has to be done on the
positive charge to move it against
this force of repulsion.
The electric potential is defined as
the work done in moving a unit
positive charge fro infinity to that
point.

Potential Difference /
Voltage
The concept of electric potential is closely linked to
that of the electric field. A small charge placed
within an electric field experiences a force, and to
have brought that charge to that point against the
force requireswork. The electric potential at any
point is defined as the energy required to bring a
unit test charge from aninfinite distanceslowly to
that point.
It is usually measured involts, and one volt is the
potential for which onejouleof work must be
expended to bring a charge of onecoulombfrom
infinity.

Potential
difference =

or,

V= .

where W = work done.

and Q = quantity of
charge moved.
S.I. unit of potential difference is volt.
thus 1 volt =

Voltmeter
Avoltmeteris an
instrument used
for
measuringelectric
al
potentialdifference
between two points
in an electric
circuit.
Voltmeter has a
high resistance so
that it takes

Electric Current
The
movement of electric charge is known
as anelectric current, the intensity of which
is usually measured inamperes. Current can
consist of any moving charged particles;
most commonly these are electrons, but any
charge in motion constitutes a current.
1 ampere = .

Ammeter
Anammeteris
ameasuring
instrumentused to
measure theelectric
currentin acircuit.
Electric currents are
measured
inamperes(A),
hence the name.
An ammeter should
have a very low
resistance so that it

Circuit Diagram
We know that an electric circuit, as shown in following fig.
comprises a cell(or a battery), a plug key, electrical
component(s), and connecting wires. It is often convenient
to draw a schematic diagram, in which different
components of the circuit are represented by the symbols
conveniently used. Conventional symbols used to represent
some of the most commonly used electrical components.
A circuit is an electrical device that provides a path for
electricity to flow

Ohms Law
Ohms Law explains the relationship
between voltage (V or E), current (I)
and resistance (R)
Used by electricians, automotive
technicians, stereo installers.
According to Ohms law : At constant
temperature, the current flowing
through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential
difference across its end.

 According
to Ohms law:

VI
or, V= R x I.
where R is constant resistance of the
conductor.
This can also be written as
or, I = .
So,
Current, I = .
Therefore,
i. The current is directly proportional to
potential difference.
ii. The current is inversely proportional to
resistance.

Resistance
An electron traveling through the wires and loads of the
external circuit encounters resistance.Resistanceis
the hindrance to the flow of charge. For an electron,the
journey from terminal to terminal is not a direct route.
Rather, it is a zigzag path that results from countless
collisions with fixed atoms within the conducting
material. The electrons encounter resistance - a
hindrance to their movement.
The S.I. unit of resistance is ohms ().

Factors affecting Resistance

i. Length of conductor.
ii. Area of cross section of the
conductor (or thickness of the
conductor).
iii. Nature of the material of the
conductor, and
iv. Temperature of conductor.

Resistivity
It has been found by experiments that :
The resistivity of a given of a given conductor
is directly proportional to its length.
R l ..(1)
The resistivity of a given conductor is inversely
proportional to its area of cross section.
R 1/A (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we get :
R l/A
R = .(3)

 Where
p(rho) is a constant known as resistivity of

the material.
The resistivity of a substance is numerically equal
to the resistance of a rod of that substance which is
1 meter long and 1 square meter in cross section.

Resistivity, p = .
The unit of resistance R is ohm.
The unit of area of cross-section A is (meter) 2.
The unit of length l is meter.
putting these unit in the above equation
p=.
p = ohm-meter.
The S.I. unit of resistivity is ohm-meter (m)

Resistivity of some common substances (200

C)

 The resistivity of alloys are much

more than those of pure metals (from
which they are made).
For example the resistivity of
maganine (which is an alloy of
copper, manganese and nickel)is
about 25 times more than that of
copper.
Alloys are used in making heating a
materials as
i. Alloys have very high resistivity
(due to which heating elements

Combination of Resistors
Resistors can be combined in two
ways

i. In series.
ii.In parallel.

Resistors in Series
When two (or more) resistors are
connected end to end consecutively,
they are said to be connected in
series.
According to the law of combination
of resistance in series: The
combined resistance of any
number of resistances connected
in series is equal to the sum of
the individual resistances.

I. When a number of resistors

connected in series are joined to the
terminal of a battery, then each
resistance has a different potential
difference across its ends (which
depends on the value of resistance).
But the total potential difference
across all the ends of all the
resistors in series is equal.
II. When a number of resistors are
connected in series, then the same
current flows through each
resistance.

Resultant of Resistances connected in

Series
The figure shows three resistances R 1,R2,R3 connected in series.
Now suppose potential difference across resistance R 1 is V1 , R2 is
V2 and R3 is V3. Let potential difference across battery be V, then :
V = V1+V2+V3.
Applying Ohms law to the whole circuit : V = IR.
..(1)
Applying Ohms law to the three resistors separately, we get:
V1 = I x R1.
.. (2)
V2 = I x R2.
.. (3)
V3 = I x R3.
.. (4)
Substituting (2), (3), (4) in (1)
IR = IR1 + IR2+ IR3
OR, IR= I (R1+R2+R3)
Or, R = R1+R2+R3 .
Therefore we conclude that the sum total resistance in a series
resistance connection is equal to the sum of all the resistances.

Resistors in Parallel
When two (or more) resistors are connected between
the same points, they are said to be connected in
parallel.
According to the law of combination of resistance in
parallel: The reciprocal of the combined
resistance of any number of resistances
connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistances.
1/R= 1/R1 +1/R2 +1/R3+..
When a number of resistances are connected in
parallel then their combined resistance is less than
the smallest individual resistance.

 When a number of resistance are

connected in parallel, then the potential
difference across each resistance is same
which is equal to the voltage of battery
applied.
When a number of resistances connected
in parallel are joined to the two terminals
of a battery, then different amounts of
current flow through each resistance
(which depend on the value of resistance).
But the current flowing through each
parallel resistance, taken together, is
equal to the current flowing in the circuit
as a whole. Thus, when a number of

Resultant of Resistances connected in

Parallel
The figure shows three resistances R1,R2,R3 connected in series.
Now suppose currant across resistance R1 is I1 , R2 is I2 and R3 is I3.
Let total current in the circuit be I, then:
I = I1+I2+I3.
Applying Ohms law to the whole circuit : I = V/R.
..(1)
Applying Ohms law to the three resistors separately, we get:
I1 = V / R1.
.. (2)
I2 = V / R2.
.. (3)
I3 = V / R3.
.. (4)
Substituting (2), (3), (4) in (1)
V/R = V/R1 + V/R2+ V/R3
OR, V/R= I (1/R1 +1/R2 + 1/R3)
Or, 1/R = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3 .
Therefore we conclude that the sum total resistance in a parallel
resistance connection is equal to the sum of reciprocal of all the
resistances.

Parallel and Series

connection
If one electric appliance
stops working due to some
defect, then
all other
Parallel
connection
appliances keep working
normally.
In parallel circuits, each
electric appliance has its
own switch due to which it
can be turned on or off
independently.
Each appliance gets same
voltage as that of power
source.

Overall resistance of
household circuit is
reduced due to which the
current from power supply

Series connection
If one electric appliance stop
working due to some defect, then
all other appliances stop working.
All the electric appliances have
only one switch due to which they
cannot be turned on or off
separately.
In series circuit, the appliances do
not get same voltage (220 V) as
that of the power supply line.
In series circuit the overall
resistance of the circuit increases
due to which the current from the
power source is low.

Variable Resistors
The resistor whose electrical
resistance value can be adjusted as
per requirement by adjustable
component attached to it is called
variable resistor.

Joules law of heating

Let
An electric current I is flowing through a resistor having resistance equal to R.
The potential difference through the resistor is equal to V.
The charge Q flows through the circuit for the time t.
Thus, work done in moving of charge Q of potential difference V = VQ
Since, this charge Q flows through the circuit for time t,

 The heat produced in wire is directly

proportional to
i. Square of current.
ii. Resistance of wire.
iii. Time for which current is passed.

Applications of heating effect of

electric current
There are many practical uses of heating effect of current. Some of the most common are
as follows.
Anincandescent light bulbglows when the filament is heated by heating effect of current,
so hot that it glows white withthermal radiation(also calledblackbody radiation).
Electric stovesand otherelectric heatersusually work by heating effect of current.
Soldering ironsandcartridge heatersare very often heated by heating effect of current.
Electric fusesrely on the fact that if enough current flows, enough heat will be generated
to melt the fuse wire.
Electronic cigarettesusually work by heating effect of current, vaporizing propylene glycol
and vegetable glycerin.
Thermistorsandresistance thermometersare resistors whose resistance changes when
the temperature changes. These are sometimes used in conjunction with heating effect of
current(also called self-heating in this context): If a large current is running through the
nonlinear resistor, the resistor's temperature rises and therefore its resistance changes.
Therefore, these components can be used in a circuit-protection role similar tofuses, or
for feedbackin circuits, or for many other purposes. In general, self-heating can turn a
resistor into a nonlinear and hysteretic circuit element.

Electric Energy
H = I2 Rt gives the rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an
electric circuit. This is also termed as electric power. The power P is given by
P = VI
Or P = I2R = V2/R
The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). It is the power consumed by a device
that carries 1 A of current when operated at a potential difference of 1 V. Thus,
1 W = 1 volt 1 ampere = 1 V A
The unit watt is very small. Therefore, in actual practice we use a much larger
unit called kilowatt. It is equal to 1000 watts. Since electrical energy is the
product of power and time, the unit of electric energy is, therefore, watt hour (W
h). One watt hour is the energy consumed when 1 watt of power is used for 1
hour. The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly
known as unit.
1 kW h = 1000 watt 3600 second
= 3.6 106 watt second
= 3.6 106 joule (J)

Semiconductors
The materials whose electrical conductivity
lies between those of conductors and
insulators, are known as semiconductors.
Silicon
1.1 eV
Germanium
0.7 eV
Cadmium Sulphide
2.4 eV
Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor.
Semiconductors have negative temperature
coefficients of resistance, i.e. as temperature
increases resistivity deceases

Energy Band Diagram

Energy Band Diagram

Forbidden energy band is small for

semiconductors.
Less energy is required for electron
to
move
from
valence
to
conduction band.
A vacancy (hole) remains when an
electron leaves the valence band.
Hole acts as a positive charge
carrier.

Types of Semiconductor
Materials
The silicon doped with extra
electrons is called an N type
semiconductor.
N is for negative, which is the charge
of an electron.

Silicon doped with material missing

electrons that produce locations
called holes is called P type
semiconductor.
P is for positive, which is the charge of

P-type Semiconductor
The semiconductors which are obtained by introducing
trivalent impurity atoms are known as P-type
semiconductors.
Examples are Ga, In, Al and B. These elements have 3
electrons in their valance shell which will form covalent
bonds with the neighbouring atoms.
The fourth covalent bond will remain incomplete. A vacancy,
which exists in the incomplete covalent bond constitute a
hole. The impurity atom is thus known as acceptor atom.
In P-type semiconductor current flows due to the movement
of electrons and holes but majority of through holes. Thus
holes in a P-type semiconductor are known as majority
charge carriers while electrons as minority charge carriers.

Charge carrier concentration in N-type and Ptype Semiconductors

The free electron and hole concentrations are related by
the Law of Electrical Neutrality i.e.

Total positive charge density is equal to the total

negative charge density

Let ND = Concentration of donor atoms = no. of positive

charges/m3 contributed by donor ions
p = hole concentration
NA=Concentration of acceptor atoms
n = electron concentration
By the law of electrical neutrality
ND + p = N A + n

For N-Type semiconductor

NA = 0 i.e. Concentration of acceptor atoms

And n>>p, then
ND + 0 = 0 + n
ND = n
i.e. in N-type, concentration of donor atoms is equal
to the concentration of free electrons.
According to Mass Action
Law
n. p n 2
i

p ni2 / n ni2 / N D

Barrier Formation in P-N

Junction Diode

The holes from p-side diffuses to the n-side

while the free electrons from n-side
diffuses to the p-side.
This movement occurs because of charge
density gradient. This leaves the negative