FAULTS

TERMINOLOGY, GEOMETRY AND

CLASSIFICATION

PRESENTATION
MADE BY:
EZAZ FAROOQ
FAULTS
TERMINOLOGY, GEOMETRY AND
CLASSIFICATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS

• DEFINITION OF FAULTS
• TERMINOLOGY OF FAULTS
• COMPONENTS OF FAULTS
• SCALE AND OCCURRENCES
OF FAULTS
• CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
FAULT DEFINITION
A fault is any surface or narrow zone with visible shear
displacement along the zone.
Simple: Fault is a break in Earth’s crust where slabs of crust
slide past each other.

Usually occur along plate

boundaries , where the forces of
plate motion compress, pull, or
shear the crust so much that the
crust breaks.
TERMINOLOGY OF FAULTS
Footwall – The footwall is the side of the fault below
the fault surface.

Hanging Wall– The hanging wall is the side of the

fault above the fault surface
Fault Plane – The fault plane is the planar (flat)
surface along which there is slip, also known as
Fault Surface.
• If the “fault plane” is tilted, the block above the
fault plane is the “hanging wall” or “upper block”
and beneath the fault plane is called “footwall
block”
Fault Blocks– The “fault blocks” are the two portions
of rock separated by the fault plane.
TERMINOLOGY OF FAULTS
Vertical Faults: hanging wall/footwall do not apply
High Angle Faults: >45 Degrees dip
Low Angle Faults: <45 Degrees dip

Flat: The flats are where the hanging wall slides

along relatively weak, sub-horizontal boundaries or
mechanical discontinuities also called detachment
planes
Ramp: The ramps are steeper segments where the
fault plane climbs through the stratigraphic
sequence typically at around 60° to the horizontal for
normal faulting.
TERMINOLOGY OF FAULTS
ANATOMY OF FAULTS

Block

Block
 COMPONENTS OF FAULTS

Fault Slip – Net distance and direction the hanging block has moved
with respect to the foot block.
• Net Slip: The total slip on the fault.
• Dip Slip: The dip parallel slip component.
• Strike Slip: The Strike parallel slip component.

Fault Separation – Distance between displaced parts of a marker

horizon, Measured along a specified line.
 COMPONENTS OF FAULTS
Fault Separation – Distance between displaced
parts of a marker horizon, Measured along a
specified line.
• Dip separation- offset distance measured
parallel to dip of the fault
• Heave- horizontal component of dip
separation
• Throw- vertical component of dip
separation

• Strike separation- offset measured parallel to

strike of fault
 SCALE OF FAULTS
Fault – : >1 or more
Shear Fracture – On centimeter scale
Micro Fault – Micrometers, under microscope. Shear Fracture
For e.g. Single mineral shear fractures

OCCURRENCES

Fault – Single, Discrete fault plane.

Fault Zone– Network of branching
faults (Anastomosed)

Fault Zone
CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS

• DIP SLIP FAULTS

• Normal(Detachment) Faults
• Reverse(Thrust) Faults
• STRIKE SLIP FAULTS
• Sinistral (Left-Lateral) Faults
• Dextral (Right-Lateral) Faults
• HYBRID FAULTS
• Scissor Faults(Rotational)
• Oblique-Slip Faults
• Transtension (Sinistral/Dextral Normal)
• Transpression( Sinistral/Dextral Reverse)
CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
DIP-SLIP FAULTS
NORMAL FAULT
• Dip-slip fault in which hanging wall moves down relative to
footwall

Characteristics:
1. Younger rocks placed on older rocks by fault.
2. Crustal extension occurs.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
DIP-SLIP FAULTS
NORMAL FAULT
Synthetic faults: smaller scale faults parallel to major faults
Antithetic faults: smaller scale faults oriented with dip in
opposite direction of major faults
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
DIP-SLIP FAULTS
NORMAL FAULT

LISTRIC NORMAL FAULT:

The second main type of faults found in

extensional regimes, listric faults can be defined
as curved normal faults in which the fault surface
in concave upwards; its dip decreases with depth.

Evolution of a listric fault

CONJUGATE NORMAL FAULT:

Normal faults are conjugate if they consist of two

sets of faults which dip towards each other to
intersect at an angle of approximately 60 degrees,
and slipped concurrently
CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
DIP-SLIP FAULTS
NORMAL FAULT

A fault plane cutting the earth surface is emergent. Conversely, a

blind fault does not reach the earth surface.
CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
DIP-SLIP FAULTS
NORMAL FAULT
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
DIP-SLIP FAULTS
REVERSE FAULT
• Dip-slip fault in which hanging wall moves up relative to
footwall

Characteristics:
1. Regional compression and Crustal shortening.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
DIP-SLIP FAULTS
REVERSE FAULT

Thrust Sheet: A thrust or nappe is a hanging block above a very low

angle thrust.
Allochthon: A block of rock that has moved a large distance from its
original place, and is thus out of place geologically.
Autochthon: A large region of rock that has not moved and is close to
its original location.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
DIP-SLIP FAULTS
REVERSE FAULT
Imbricate Fans:
Faults with large displacement commonly die out in a set of
smaller, commonly sub-parallel subsidiary faults.
Branch Line:
The Junction line where the main thrust fault splits into two
smaller faults.
CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
DIP-SLIP FAULTS
REVERSE FAULT
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
DIP-SLIP FAULTS
REVERSE FAULT
DUPLEX
a duplex is a system of imbricate (overlapping) thrusts that branch off from
a single fault below and merge with a thrust fault above.
CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
DIP-SLIP FAULTS
REVERSE FAULT
DUPLEX
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
STRIKE SLIP
SINISTRAL FAULTS
• The left block moves towards the observer on either ends of
the blocks
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
STRIKE SLIP
DEXTRAL FAULTS
• The right block moves towards the observer on either ends of
the blocks
CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
STRIKE SLIP
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
STRIKE SLIP
DEXTRAL FAULTS
• The right block moves towards the observer on either ends of
the blocks
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
HYBRID FAULTS
OBLIQUE FAULTS
TRANSTENSION FAULTS

• These are normal faults which have some Sinistral/dextral

movements too.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
HYBRID FAULTS
OBLIQUE FAULTS
TRANSPRESSION FAULTS

• These are reverse faults which have some Sinistral/dextral

movements too.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
HYBRID FAULTS
SCISSOR FAULTS

• In these type of faults, Amount of slip changes along the strike of

the fault
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
HORST
Tensional stress and normal faulting also result in features called
horsts and grabens.
When a block of crust is thrust upward between two normal
faults. This block of crust is called a horst
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
GRABEN
When between normal faults, large blocks of crust have dropped.
These blocks of crust are called grabens.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
HALF GRABEN

Describes a sedimentary basin where one side is bounded by a

normal (extensional) fault.
CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
STRUCTURES FORMED BY FAULTS

• FAULT BLOCK MOUNTAINS

• FAULT RELATED FOLDS
STRUCTURES FORMED BY FAULTS
FAULT BLOCK MOUNTAINS
Fault block mountain are formed by the movement of large
crustal blocks along faults formed when tensional forces pull
apart the crust (Normal faults).
FAULT RELATED FOLDS
FOLDS
DRAG FOLDS
Bedding is frequently bent in fault zones. These local flexures are
known as drag folds and fault drags. These are formed either in
normal or thrust zones.
FAULT RELATED FOLDS
FOLDS
EN ECHELON FOLDS
Such folds are common above strike-slip faults that have not
broken the cover but offset the basement blocks. The en échelon
fold-pattern reveals the relative sense of movement along the
basement fault.

Strike Slip Fault

FAULT RELATED FOLDS
FOLDS
DRAPE FOLDS
Fault-related, long and linear flexures that relative movements of
basement blocks generate in cover rocks. They are typically
monoclines and are formed along normal faults.
FAULT RELATED FOLDS
FOLDS
THRUST RELATED FOLDS
Thrust movement at depth generates geometrically necessary
folds in the allochthonous hanging-wall as it moves over
topographic irregularities of the thrust faults. Kink-like, box folds
result.
FAULT RELATED FOLDS
FOLDS
THRUST RELATED FOLDS
Thrust movement at depth generates geometrically necessary
folds in the allochthonous hanging-wall as it moves over
topographic irregularities of the thrust faults. Kink-like, box folds
result.

Two types generally:

• Fault bend
• Fault Propagation
FAULT RELATED FOLDS
FOLDS
FAULT BEND (THRUST RELATED FOLDS)
Form and grow above a footwall ramp where a fault steps from a
lower flat to a higher one and strata of the hanging wall slide over
the fault bend. As slip occurs, the hangingwall is folded to
accommodate to the shape of the footwall ramps in a passive
syncline-anticline pair at the base and top of the ramp.
FAULT RELATED FOLDS
FOLDS
FAULT PROPAGATION (THRUST RELATED FOLDS)
In a fault-propagation fold the ramp does not continue to an
upper flat. Strata cut by the base of the ramp are shortened by
thrusting. Fault slip decreases to zero in the up-section direction
and the fault dies out into the axial surface of a syncline.
FAULT RELATED FOLDS
FOLDS
NORMAL FAULT RELATED FOLDS
Due to the extensional behavior, Tilting of the hanging wall of a
normal listric fault toward the main fault produces a half-antiform
called rollover anticline. The rollover anticline is a gentle convex
bending of upper-block beds necessary to accommodate the
concavity of a listric normal fault.
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS

• INTRINSIC FEATURES
• EFFECT ON GEOLOGIC OR STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
• TECTONIC GEOMORPHOLOGY AND FAULTING
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
INTRINSIC FEATURES
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
INTRINSIC FEATURES
Textures/structures imparted to rocks deformed by the fault
process:
A. CATACLASIS: Mechanical crushing/grinding of rocks
along shear zone.
A. Fault Breccia: Angular blocks of rock broken apart and
consolidated in shear zone.
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
INTRINSIC FEATURES
A. CATACLASIS:
B. Fault Gouge: Finely pulverized rock powder found in
shear zone.
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
INTRINSIC FEATURES
A. CATACLASIS:
C. Pseudotachylite: glassy or vitrified rocks found in shear
zone.
Formed at great pressures (10-15 km) under very dry deformation
conditions
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
INTRINSIC FEATURES
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
INTRINSIC FEATURES
B. MYLONITES:
Mylonite is a metamorphic rock formed by ductile deformation
during intense shearing encountered during faulting
Usually at temps > 250C
Forms due to grain-size reduction by a mix of brittle and plastic
deformation in shear zones.

Through a petrographic Microscope

RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
INTRINSIC FEATURES
C. SLICKENSIDES:
A polished, striated rock surface caused by one rock mass sliding
over another in a fault.
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
EFFECT ON GEOLOGIC OR
STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
EFFECT ON GEOLOGIC OR STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
A. VERTICAL REPETITION OF STRATA:
Thrust or Reverse faulting will "tectonically thicken" the stratigraphic
sequence, and result in artificially repeating portions of the
stratigraphic section

Repeated Normal
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
EFFECT ON GEOLOGIC OR STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
B. OMISSION OF STRATA:
Normal faults essentially remove portions of the stratigraphic
section, resulting in anomalous stratigraphic relations

Omitted Normal
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
EFFECT ON GEOLOGIC OR STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
C. DRAG FOLDS:
Secondary folding of bedding in the vicinity of the fault plane due to
secondary stress
A. Reverse faults: strata down-turned in hanging wall
B. Normal faults: strata up-turned in hanging wall
RECOGNITION OF FAULTS
EFFECT ON GEOLOGIC OR STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
D. ROLLOVER ANTICLINES:
Anticlinal structures found in the hanging wall of "listric" normal
faults.
Listric normal faults: Curving normal fault plane (Great place for oil
and gas accumulation)
SEISMIC SECTIONS
NORMAL FAULTS

• Look for offsets and truncations of layers

• Concentrate on finding the large fault first
 SEISMIC SECTIONS
NORMAL FAULTS

Basic Interpretation
 SEISMIC SECTIONS
NORMAL FAULTS

Basic Interpretation
SEISMIC SECTIONS
SEISMIC SECTIONS
SEISMIC SECTIONS
THANKS