DIENCEPHALON

PHYSIOLOGY
HYPOTHALAMUS, THALAMUS & EPITHALAMUS

OUTLINE
Introduction
Hypothalamus
Nuclei
Endocrine & Vegetative functions
Emotion and other behaviours

Thalamus

Nuclei
Thalamus and Sensation
Thalamus and Motor function
Thalamic syndrome

Epithalamus

INTRODUCTION TO DIENCEPHALON
Literally means between-brain (or b/n
brain stem and cerebrum)
The third ventricle is a narrow midline cavity
within the diencephalon.
The diencephalon, together with the
telencephalon (cerebrum), constitutes the
forebrain

HYPOTHALAMUS
Most inferior portion.
Located below the thalamus.
Less than 1% of total brain volume.
Center for homeostasis.
Centers for behavioral drives.

HYPOTHALAMUS: NUCLEI

HYPOTHALAMUS: ENDOCRINE AND

VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS
Regulation of the Pituitary Gland

Pituitary gland immediately inferior to the hypothalamus.

Releasing and inhibiting hormones.
Supraoptic: produce ADH.
Paraventricular: Oxytocin.

HYPOTHALAMUS: ENDOCRINE AND

VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS
Regulation of Circadian Rhythms

Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) is the major region.

Electrical activity that oscillates automatically.
SCN influenced by way of tracts from the retina.
Synchronized to the day/night cycles.

HYPOTHALAMUS: ENDOCRINE AND

VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS
Cardiovascular Regulation
Different areas of the hypothalamus can cause many neurogenic effects.
Posterior and lateral hypothalamus: inc AP and HR.
Preoptic area: dec AP and HR.

HYPOTHALAMUS: ENDOCRINE AND

VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS
Body Temperature Regulation
Bodys thermostat is located.
Preoptic-anterior hypothalamus.
Correct deviations in a negative feedback fashion.

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HYPOTHALAMUS: ENDOCRINE AND

VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS
Body Water Regulation
Creates sensation of thirst.
Thirst center: lateral hypothalamus.

Control excretion of water in the urine.

Supraoptic nuclei: secretes ADH.

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HYPOTHALAMUS: ENDOCRINE AND

VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS
Gastrointestinal and Feeding Regulation
Lateral hypothalamic area: hunger.
Damage causes the animal to lose desire for food.

Ventromedial nuclei: satiety center.

If damaged the animal cant be satiated obesity.

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HYPOTHALAMUS: EMOTION AND OTHER

BEHAVIORS
Interacts with limbic
system to influence
behavior andemotions.
Stimulation of visceral
responses during
emotional situations.
A major part of the limbic system.

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HYPOTHALAMUS: EMOTION AND OTHER

BEHAVIORS
Sends signals in three directions:
Backward and downward to the brain stem.
Upward toward many higher areas of the diencephalon and cerebrum.
Into the hypothalamic infundibulum.

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THALAMUS
Bilateral ovoid mass of gray matter
80% of diencephalon.
Intermediate mass or interthalamic adhesion.
Hypothalamic sulcus
Thalamus (except reticular nucleus) --------Cerebral cortex
All part of Cerebral Cortex -------- Thalamus

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THALAMIC NUCLEI ANATOMIC

CLASSIFICATION:
Lateral Group of nuclei

Medial Group Anterior

of Nuclei
Group of
Nuclei

Other Nuclei

Ventral Group

Dorsal
Group

Centromedian
N.

Reticular
Nucleus

Ventral
Anterior/Lateral
N.

Pulvinar N

Midline
Nucleus

Intralaminar
Nuclei

Ventral Posterior Lateral

N
Posterior N.
(VPL, VPM)
Medial
Geniculate body
Lateral
Geniculate Body

Lateral
Dorsal N.

Dorsomedial
N.

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THALAMIC NUCLEI ANATOMIC

CLASSIFICATION:

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FUNCTIONAL DIVISION OF THALAMIC NUCLEI

Specific Relay Nuclei: project to specific parts of Cerebral cortex
Specific relay nuclei

Cortical Projection sites

LGB

Visual Cortex

MGB

Auditory Cortex

VPL

Somatosensory Cortex (trunk &

limbs)

VPM

Somatosensory Cortex (head)

Ventral Lateral (afferent from

basal ganglia & Cerebellum)

Motor cortex

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FUNCTIONAL DIVISION OF THALAMIC NUCLEI

Association Nuclei: project to association cortices
Afferent: from cerebral cortex
Efferent: only to cortical association areas
Association Nuclei

Cortical Projection sites

Lateral Dorsal

Cingulate gyrus & Precuneus

Lateral Posterior

Parietal Association cortex

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FUNCTIONAL DIVISION OF THALAMIC NUCLEI

Non-specific Nuclei: project to wide areas of the cortex.
Afferent from Ascending reticular activating system
Efferent to: Hypothalamus, Limbic system & Cerebral Cortex
Function:- They increase cortical excitability and responsiveness
Nonspecific Nuclei

Projection sites

Intralaminar

Diffuse cortical areas

Anterior Nuclei

Limbic structures

Subcortical Nuclei: these nuclei dont project to the cortex. E.g.

Reticular nucleus (projects to other thalamic nuclei)

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FUNCTIONS OF THALAMUS
Sensory functions
Center for sexual sensation (perception of sexual sensations)
Role in arousal & alertness reactions (because of its connections with
nuclei of reticular formation)
Center for reflex activity
Center for integration of motor activity

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THALAMUS AND SENSATIONS

The nervous pathways of somatic sensations:
Dorsal Column pathway
Spinothalamic Pathway
Trigeminal pathway

Other pathways related to thalamus:

Visual pathway through LGN of thalamus
Auditory system through MGN of thalamus

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THALAMUS AND SENSATIONS

Trigeminal pathway:
Sensation of heads pain,
temperature, tactile &
proprioception.
1st order neurons: primarily
from trigeminal ganglion to
trigeminal nuclei.
2nd order neurons: from the
nuclei to both ipsilateral and
contralateral VPM of thalamus
(primarily contralateral)

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THALAMUS AND SENSATION: SENSORY

FUNCTIONS
Relay center for sensations:
Almost all sensations reach thalamic nuclei (particularly VPM, VPL) to be
processed before reaching cerebral cortex

Center for processing of sensory information and functional gateway for

cerebral cortex
All the peripheral sensory impulses reaching thalamus are integrated and
modified before being sent to specific areas of cerebral cortex

Determining the Affective nature of sensations

Affective nature is the capacity to determine whether a sensation is pleasant or
unpleasant and agreeable or disagreeable

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THALAMUS AND MOTOR FUNCTION

Through the connections with
cerebellum and basal ganglia,
thalamus serves as a center for
integration of motor functions.
Role in arousal/wakefulness &
alertness reactions (because of its
connections with nuclei of reticular
formation)

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THALAMIC OR DEJERINE-ROUSSY SYNDROME

Cause blockage (due to thrombosis) in thalamogeniculate branch of
posterior cerebral artery leading to infarction of posteroventral part of
thalamus.
Medial and Intralaminar nuclei are not affected in this syndrome.
Symptoms are:
Loss of all sensations (anesthesia) initially but weeks later pain sensibility
regained due to facilitation of medial and intralaminar nuclei
Astereognosis
Sensory Ataxia (loss of kinesthetic sensation)

THALAMIC OR DEJERINE-ROUSSY SYNDROME

Symptoms continued.
Thalamic Phantom limb: the illusion of limb loss
Anosognosia
Lack of awareness or denial of existance of a neurological defect or general
illness or any disability

Involuntary Movements like intention tremor

Thalamic/Athetoid Hand
Abnormal attitude of hand w/c wrist moderately flexes and all fingers
hyperextend

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EPITHALAMUS
Dorsal segment of the
diencephalon.
Choroid plexus over the
third ventricle.
Contains the pineal
gland

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EPITHALAMUS: PINEAL GLAND

Secretes the hormone melatonin.
Helps regulate circadian rhythms.
Lacks direct nervous connections to the rest of the brain.
Highly innervated by SNS.

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EPITHALAMUS: PINEAL GLAND

SCN of the hypothalamus regulates pineal secretion.
Through hypothalamic control of SNS.

Activity of the SCN + secretion of melatonin:

Increase with darkness.
Decrease with light.
Neural pathways from retina depress activity of SCN.

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EPITHALAMUS: PINEAL GLAND

Different functions of Melatonin:
Powerful free-radical scavenger and wide spectrum antioxidant.
Have positive immunological effect.
Involved in the initiation of puberty.

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REFERENCE:
John Mendoza, Anne Foundas; Clinical Neuroanatomy: A
Neurobehavioral Approach
K Sembulingam, Prema Sembulingam; Essentials of Medical Physiology
6th edition, 2012
Martini, Timmons, Tallitsch; Human Anatomy 7th edition, 2012

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