Chapter 1

Introduction to Feedback System

and Control problem

Introduction to the control Problem

Control Systems are playing an important role in
development of modern civilization and
technology.
Every system we come across today, has some
type of control engineering involved in it.
For example , a home heating system; a
refrigerator, an air conditioner, an automobile; all
these are examples of control systems.
Take any sector of industry, you will find control
systems everywhere. Say the space technology
and weapon systems, the robotics, the power
plants all are the industrial sectors where you find
control systems.

Basic Structure and Terminology

The system to be controlled is given in various
names : The most common being a process or a
plant or the controlled system itself. In process
industries, particularly chemicals, petroleum, steam
power etc there are applications where we require
the control of temperature, pressure, liquid level in
vessels, humidity, composition and the like. All these
applications generally considered as process control
applications.
During the Second World War the need of automatic
airplane pilots, the gun positioning systems, radar
antenna control systems ,and the like, led to more
scientific approaches in the control engineering
field. To solve these problems theory of
servomechanisms was developed .

Basic Structure and Terminology( cont..)

Note that the word servomechanism originated from the
words servo means the slave or the servant and the
mechanism. So it means a servo system is a system which
is slave to the command and this was the requirement of
the weaponry system during the World War II.
Fig. 1.1 in the lecture note shows that the I/O
configuration of a process ( or plant). The output of this
particular process are the response variable. the variable
or the attribute of the process you want to control and this
controlled will be exercised by, what we refer to as, the
manipulated variable. The manipulated variable is subject
to control by the controller we are going to design. And the
requirement of the control is that there is unavoidable and
undesirable disturbance acting on the process. This point
maybe very carefully noted. The disturbance is uncalled
for and it is beyond control . As shown in fig 1.2 .

Basic Structure and Terminology( cont..)

The disturbance may be originated outside the
process environment or the disturbance may also be
originated from within the process. For example, the
parameters of the process are subject to change
with time .
The manipulated variable is the variable to which the
process is going to react and the reaction of this
process to the manipulated variable is going to make
the response variable follow your commands. So it
means, naturally speaking, the manipulated variable
must be under the control of the controller. The
controller is going to control the manipulated
variable and the function of this controller is to make
the response variable follow the system commands.

Basic Structure and Terminology( cont..)

Now in particular case, the requirement of this
particular system or the requirement of this controller
is to force the controlled variable follow the command
in spite of random unknown disturbances acting on
the system.
In Fig. 1.3. in open-loop control system, the controller
directly gets the information about the command
signal from the user. This information which the
controller gets from the user as a command signal is
effectively utilized by this controller. The controller
acts upon the signal to generate a manipulated
variable whose function is to force the controlled
variable follow the command. So, in this particular
case the only information available to the controller is
the command signal.

Basic Structure and Terminology( cont..)

The plant information this controller was intelligent about the
plant information at certain point of time and a controller was
designed to realize the objective of the controlled variable
following the command signal. But in due course if the
disturbance on to the plant changes because of the reaction
of the environment or because of the changes within the
plant what will happen, your controller is ignorant about
those changes. It means the controller which was designed
earlier for a specific information about the disturbance is no
more effective in making the controlled variable follow the
command.
So it means there will an error between the controlled
variable and the command signal because of the changes in
the disturbance variable and hence this type of controlled
structure which in the literature is referred to as open-loop
control, the open-loop meaning that the loop has not been
closed to give you the information about the controlled
variable.

Basic Structure and Terminology( cont..)

In Fig 1.4 shows the closed-loop control wherein the
controller is intelligent and it gets information about the
current status of the controlled variable as well. So in
this particular scheme if this random effect comes on
the process in that particular case the controller
becomes ineffective to track these particular
disturbances or to take action so as to nullify the effect
of this disturbance on the process. So the controller
should be more intelligent. What is the intelligence
required?
The additional information the controller requires is the
disturbance. It should get the information about the
disturbance also so that it knows that in spite of that
disturbance the manipulated variable is to be
manipulated, is to be controlled so that this variable
follows the command.

Basic Structure and Terminology( cont..)

There is sensor here, this particular sensor gets the
information about the controlled variable and passes
on this information to the controller. note that
controller is not intelligent, it gets the information
about the disturbances indirectly through the
controlled variable, it does not get the information
directly in this particular feedback structure. Now the
function of the controller is the following:
It compares the actual controlled variable, the
information available from the sensor from the
command signal and generates an error signal and
that error signal it utilizes to generate a suitable
control signal and that control signal manipulates the
signal to the plant so as to reduce the error to zero.

Basic Structure and

Terminology( cont..)

So this particular system is an error self-nulling

process wherein we will find that the error between the
command and the actual variable is reduced to zero
because of the controller action. This particular system
in the literature is referred to as the closed-loop
system, the name is evident from the structure of the
system or it is also called a feedback control system.
the major source of the problem in this particular
structure is the sensor itself. Recall that in the earlier
structure on open-loop control the sensor was not
there. This is the additional hardware introduced in
this particular structure because of the requirement of
making the controller more intelligent. Now this sensor
when this piece of hardware is introduced in this
particular loop it is going to introduce problems of
noise.

Basic Structure and Terminology( cont..)

in the process of measurement it generates high frequency
noise and this high frequency noise also gets injected into
the loop. So the plant and the controller in addition to getting
the useful signal about the command signal and the
controlled variable gets this noise signal which is a high
frequency signal and the plant will react to that signal as well
and control may not be effective.
This particular problem was not there in the open-loop
structure. However, suitable noise filter can be installed in
the loop so that this particular problem of noise can be taken
care of. Now what is the requirement on the controller. The
requirement on the controller to make this particular system
robust. The word robust is used in the control literature to
emphasize the need of control so as to make it insensitive to
disturbances and parameter variations. one of the primary
requirement of the feedback system is to make the
controlled system a robust one.

Example 1.1 Automobile Driving system

In fig 1.5 shows the automobile driving system There
are two output variables. In the previous example, recall,
there was only one output variable one controlled
variable. The two output variables in this system are (the
heading and the speed). Now the plant in this particular
system is the vehicle.
What is the disturbance acting on the system? It is the
wind force plus road traffic conditions . The two input
command signals is the direction of the highway and
the speed limits as given by traffic signals is the another
command variables.
Now in the case manipulated variables For this heading
the manipulated variable should be steering position,
this steering control and the manipulated variable here
is the accelerator or the brake position to control the
speed.

Example 1.1 Automobile Driving system (cont)

A system with multiple input and multiple output
variables in the literature is referred to as an MIMO very
standard name we will be using Multi-Input Multi-Output
system or a multivariable system. In contrast to this
system, the earlier example was an example of an SISO
Single Input Single Output system. These terms are quite
frequently used in the literature called a scalar system .
in this particular case one manipulated variable here
may affect both the controlled variables as far as this
plant is concerned. This is called the coupling between
the input variables and the output variables or the
interaction between the input and the output variables.
This interaction makes the control decide the task a very
difficult task That is why the design of multivariable
systems is quite difficult in nature because of the
interaction .

Example 1.1 Automobile Driving system (cont)

We can decouple this system into two SISO systems for
the purpose of design because the interaction is
negligible.
The actuator here is ( foot or hands). In this case error
detector has to be identified there is no hardware error
detector . The eyes of the driver acts as an error detector
The control logic is in the brain of the driver and a
suitable action is taken by the driver depending upon the
control logic he has set in his brain so that the
manipulated variable through the actuators are suitably
controlled so as to make the controlled variables follow
the command. When the command signals are changing
with time and the purpose of the controller is to make
the controlled variable follow the time varying commands
then this control system is referred to as a tracking
system or regulator system / command following system.

Example 1.1 Automobile Driving system

(cont)
The driver is in the feedback loop, it is not
complete hardware system. But the case of a
bathroom toilet tank, there is no human operator
in the loop. So, in these systems wherein there is
no human operator in the loop it is called
automatic control systems .
the systems the feedback systems wherein the
human operator in the loop, well, may be referred
to as man-machine control systems.
Our emphasis throughout the course is going to
be on automatic control systems. The complete
hardware will be described which is to be used
inside the loop to realize the objective of control.

Example 1.3 Servomechanism for steering of

antenna

In fig 1.11 shows the servomechanism for steering of

antenna . It is a typical radar application where the
requirement is this; that the antenna is aligned to the
target the target plane and it is required to follow the
target.
So it means, in this particular case the command which
is given by the radar sensor the radar sensor detects the
deviation between the antenna axis and the targets
position and the error between the antenna axis and the
targets position is the command signal for the servo
system.
Now this command signal is given to the servo
mechanism which is required to steer the antenna and
the problem is that the antenna should monitor or should
follow the command so as to reduce the error to zero.

Example 1.3 Servomechanism for steering of

antenna (cont..)

There are two degrees of freedom: The elevation

angle around the horizontal axis, the azimuth angle
beta which is around the vertical axis. So, in this
particular case naturally this becomes a
multivariable system as per the terminology given
because it is a two input case.
However, as was the case in the earlier example
of automobile driving system fortunately in this
particular case the interaction is small and we can
neglect the interaction.
if the coupling or the interaction can be neglected
in that particular case from the point of view of
design a multivariable system can be treated as a
subset of single input single output systems .

Example 1.3 Servomechanism for steering of

antenna (cont..)
We can design a servo system for driving the antenna as
far as the elevation angle is concerned and other servo
system for driving the azimuth angle or for controlling
the azimuth angle of the antenna. So now let us take a
typical system which will be required for the azimuth
control of the antenna assuming that interaction between
the two subsystems is negligibly small and we can treat
the system as a single input single output system.
Here is a simple block diagram description for driving
the azimuth angle of the antenna this is beta the
controlled variable the azimuth angle. Beta r will become
the command signal as given by the radar sensor. So it
means this particular variable has to reach this block
which is the error detector and hence a suitable sensor
is required here for sensing the azimuth position of the
antenna.

Example 1.3 Servomechanism for steering of antenna

(cont..)

Here shaft angle encoder is used . The output of this

device is a digital input which is in proportion to the
analog signal given. So it means here it is a digital
signal, the feedback signal which is proportional to the
azimuth angle beta. so there is computer which
accepts two signals: one the command signal; the
command signal could also be or will also be in this
particular case a digital command proportional to the
required beta r and feedback signal is a digital signal
proportional to the actual beta the actual angle.
So this computer which is a controller in this particular
case generates an error between the two beta r minus
beta and this particular error is used to generate a
suitable manipulated variable a suitable manipulated
signal which drives the motor so as to force this beta to
follow beta r.

Example 1.3 Servomechanism for steering of

antenna (cont..)
Here D/A converter is used . Here as u it is a
controlled signal this signal is converted into an
analog signal because my actuating device is an
analog device.
here a power amplifier is used . So this becomes
the signal power given to the power amplifier,
this particular signal controls the power supply to
the motor so that this particular motor which
generates the torque is able to drive the angle
beta.
Note that between the motor shaft and this beta
is the antenna used a gear train.

Example 1.3 Servomechanism for steering of

antenna (cont..)

the antenna the torque requirement for the antenna

is much larger than the torque produced by a
typical motor. In this particular case a DC motor has
been used, a DC armature controlled motor has
been used. The torque produced by the motor is
lesser than the requirement of the antenna so for
the torque magnification a suitable gear system is
designed so that this particular torque the motor
torque is able to drive the antenna axis.
So in this case where is the feedback loop. You will
find that the feedback loop in this particular case is
through this particular channel that is the output is
fed back and it is compared with the reference
signal.

Example 1.3 Servomechanism for steering

of antenna (cont..)
In comparison to the earlier block diagrams you will find
one change here and that change is the following that in
addition to this feedback signal one additional feedback
signal is being given and that signal is through the
tachogenerator. This is the tachogenerator which is
coupled to the motor shaft. So it means the output here
is going to be a voltage which is proportional to the shaft
velocity. So, in addition to the position you are feeding
back the velocity also.
This is your command signal beta r the command for the
azimuth angle given by the radar system. This is your
feedback signal beta coming from the shaft angle
encoder in suitable physical form may be a digital
number voltage or any other, depends upon the
hardware we are going to use. These two are compared
and therefore this becomes the error detector block .

Example 1.3 Servomechanism for steering of

antenna (cont..)

After comparison I have a signal which is e cap

the actuating error signal. This particular error
signal compares is the actuating signal for this
particular system. Now this signal e cap. now
we have another signal coming from this and
here is your tacho; a tachogenerator over here
which gives you a signal which is proportional to
the derivative of the controlled variable. Now this
signal is the signal given to the power amplifier.
The function of the power amplifier is to change
the power level so as to meet the requirements of
the motor.

Example 1.3 Servomechanism for

steering of antenna (cont..)
here motor plus load as the plant. So in this
particular case what is load; load is the antenna, the
antenna is being driven through a gear train and the
gear is coupled to the motor shaft .
for model based design the antenna, the gears and
the motor shaft all will be taken up as the plant of
the system and the typical parameters of the plant
will become moment of inertia J and the viscous
friction B.
the earlier systems the mass, the damper and the
spring were taken as the elements of physical model
of a mechanical system. Similarly, for rotational
systems the typical parameters of physical model
are moment of inertia J and the friction B.

What is a Control Systems ? (cont..)

System An interconnection of elements and
devices for a desired purpose.
A Control System consists of subsystems and
processes (or plants) assembled to control the
outputs of a process.

What is a Control Systems ? (cont..)

The Control system is that means by which any
quantity of interest in a machine , mechanism or
other Equipment is maintained or altered in
accordance with a desired manner. Consider, for
example, the deriving system of an Automobile .
Speed of the Automobile is a function of the position of
its accelerator. The desired speed can be maintained (
or a desired change in speed can be achieved) by
controlling pressure on the accelerator Pedal.
This Automobile deriving system ( accelerator,
carburetor and Engine- Vehicle ) constitutes a control
system.

The Basic Control System

The Basic Control System (cont..)

For the Automobile deriving system the input
( Command ) signal is the force on the accelerator
Pedal which through linkages causes the carburetor
valve to open( close) so as to increase or decrease
fuel ( Liquid Form) flow to the engine bringing the
engine-vehicle speed ( controlled Variable ) to the
desired value.
The diagrammatic representation of fig 1.1 is known
as Block diagram representation where each block
represents an Element, a plant, mechanism , Device
etc.
Each Block has an input and Output signal which are
linked by a relationship characterizing the block.
It may be noted that the signal flow through the block
is Unidirectional.

Control System another view

A Control System is an arrangement of physical
components connected/related in such a manner
as to command, direct or regulate itself or
another system.
Typical Examples of Control Systems:
Central Temperature Control
Fluid Level maintenance systems
Battery Voltage Control
Human has numerous control systems built in it.

Human like Control

How.. Control Systems in Robotics

Perspective

Industry

.Everywhere

Advantages of a Control System

Power amplification:
Radar antenna positioned by the low-power
rotation of a knob at the input, requires a large
amount of power for its output rotation. Control
system will produce the needed power
amplification/power gain.

Remote control :
Robots designed by control system principles can
compensate for human disabilities. Control
systems are also useful in remote or dangerous
locations. For example, a remote-controlled robot
arm can be used to pick up material in a
radioactive environment.

Advantages of a Control System (cont..)

Convenience of input form :

Control systems can also be used to provide convenience by

changing the form of the input. For example, in a temperature
control system, the input is a position on a thermostat. The
output is heat. Thus, a convenient position input yields a
desired thermal output.
Compensation for disturbances :

Another advantage of a control system is the ability to

compensate for disturbances. Typically, we control such
variables as temperature in thermal systems, position and
velocity in mechanical systems, and voltage, current, or
frequency in electrical systems. The system must be able to
yield the correct output even with a disturbance. For example,
consider an antenna system that points in a commanded
direction. If wind forces the antenna from its commanded
position, or if noise enters internally, the system must be able
to detect the disturbance and correct the antenna's position.

Response Characteristics
Consider a control system for an elevator.
When the fourth-floor button is pressed on the
ground floor, the elevator rises to the fourth floor
with a speed and floor-leveling accuracy designed
for passenger comfort. The push of the fourthfloor button is an input that represents our
desired output, shown as a step function in Figure
1.2. The performance of the elevator can be seen
from the elevator response curve in the figure.

Response Characteristics (cont..)

A control system provides an output or response for
a given input or stimulus. For example, when the
Fourth floor of an elevator is pushed on the ground
floor, the elevator rises to the fourth floor with a
speed and floor- leveling accuracy designed for
passenger comfort .
The push of the fourth floor button is the input and is
represented by a step command. The input
represents what we would like the output to be after
the elevator has stopped; the elevator itself follows
the displacement described by the curve marked
elevator Response.
Two factors make the output different from the input.
First, compare the instantaneous change of the input
against the gradual change of the output .

Response Characteristics (cont..)

The state changes through a path that is related to the
physical device and the way it acquires or dissipates
energy. Thus, the elevator undergoes a gradual
change as it rises from the first floor to the fourth floor.
We call this party of the response the transient
response.
After the transient response, a physical system
approaches its steady- state response, which is its
approximation to the commanded or desired response.
For the elevator example, this response Occurs when
the elevator reaches the fourth floor. The accuracy of
the elevators leveling with the floor is a second factor
that could make the output different from the input .
We call this different steady-state error

Closed- Loop Control

Let us reconsider the automobile deriving system.
The route, speed and acceleration of the
automobile are determined and controlled by the
driver by observing traffic and road conditions
and by properly manipulating the accelerator,
gear-lever, brakes and steering wheel, etc.
Suppose the deriver wants to maintain a speed
of 50KM per hour ( Desired output). He
accelerates the automobile to this speed with the
help of the accelerator and then maintains it by
holding the accelerator steady. No error in the
speed of the automobile occurs so long as there
are no gradients or other disturbances along the
road.

Closed- Loop Control ( cont)

The actual speed of the automobile is measured by the
speedometer and indicated on its dial.
The deriver reads the speed dial visually and compares
the actual speed with the desired one mentally. If there
is a deviation of speed from the desired speed,
accordingly he takes the decision to increase or
decrease the speed.
The decision is executed by change in pressure of his
foot ( through muscular power ) on the accelerator
pedal.
The fig. 1.2 follow a closed loop, i.e, information about
the instantaneous state of the output is feedback to the
input and is used to modify it in a such manner as to
achieve the desired output. It is on account of this basic
difference that the system of Fig 1.1 is called an Openloop system, while fig 1.2 is called Closed- loop system.

Closed- Loop Control ( cont)

Manually Controlled systems Vs

Automatic Control systems
A simple block diagram of an automobile steering
mechanism is shown in fig. 1.3 (a). The deriver senses
visually and by tactile means( body movement ) the error
between the actual and desired directions of the
automobile as in Fig. 1.3 (b).
Additional information is available to the deriver from the
feel (sensing) of the steering wheel through his hands,
these information's constitute the feedback signals which
are interpreted by the drivers brain, who then signals his
hand to adjust the steering wheel accordingly. In fact unless
human being(s) are left out in a control system study
practically all control systems are a sort of closed-loop
system .
Systems of the type represented in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3
involve continuous manual control by a human operator
.these are classified as Manually Controlled Systems .

Manually Controlled systems Vs Automatic

Control systems(cont..)
In many complex and fast-acting systems, the presence
of human element in the control loop is undesirable
because the system response may be too rapid for an
operator to follow or the demand on operators skill may
be unreasonably high.
Furthermore, some of the systems. e.g ., missiles, are
self-destructive and in such systems human element
must be excluded. Even in the situations where manual
control could be possible, an economic case can often
be made out for reduction of human supervision.
Thus in most situations the use of some equipment
which performs the same intended function as
continuously employed human operator is preferred . A
system incorporating such an equipment is known as
automatic control system.

Manually Controlled systems Vs

Automatic Control systems(cont..)
In fact in most situations an automatic control system could
be made to perform intended functions better than a
human operator, and could further be made to perform such
functions as would be impossible for a human operator .
The general block diagram of an automatic control system
which is characterized by a feedback loop, is shown in fig
1.4.
An error detector compares a signal obtained through
feedback elements, which is the function of the output
response, with the reference input.
Any difference between these two signals constitutes an
error or actuating signal, which actuates the control
elements .
The control element in turn alter the conditions in the plant
(controlled member ) in a such a manner as to reduce the
original error.

Open-loop Control
As stated already, any physical system which does
not automatically correct for variation in its output,
is called an open-loop system. Such a system may
be represented by the block diagram of Fig. 1.6 . In
these systems the output remains constant for a
constant input signal provided the external
conditions remain un altered. The output may be
changed to any desired value by appropriately
changing the input signal but variations in external
conditions or internal parameters of the system
may cause the output to vary from the desired
value in un controlled fashion .

Open-Loop Systems
A generic open-loop system is shown in Figure 1.6(a).
It starts with a subsystem called an input transducer,
which converts the form of the input to that used by
the controller. The controller drives a process or a
plant. The input is sometimes called the reference,
while the output can be called the controlled variable.
Other signals, such as disturbances, are shown
added to the controller and process outputs via
summing junctions, which yield the algebraic sum of
their input signals using associated signs.
The distinguishing characteristic of an open-loop
system is that it cannot compensate for any
disturbances that add to the controller's driving
signal (Disturbance 1 in Figure 1.6(a)).

Open-Loop Systems (cont)

For example, if the controller is an electronic amplifier and
Disturbance 1 is noise, then any additive amplifier noise
at the first summing junction will also drive the process,
corrupting the output with the effect of the noise. The
output of an open-loop system is corrupted not only by
signals that add to the controller's commands but also by
disturbances at the output (Disturbance 2 in Figure
1.6(a)).
The system cannot correct for these disturbances, either.
Open-loop systems, then, do not correct for disturbances
and are simply commanded by the input. For example,
toasters are open-loop systems, as anyone with burnt
toast can attest. The controlled variable (output) of a
toaster is the color of the toast. The device is designed
with the assumption that the toast will be darker the
longer it is subjected to heat.

Open-Loop Systems (cont)

Other examples of open-loop systems are
mechanical systems consisting of a mass, spring,
and damper with a constant force positioning the
mass. The greater the force, the greater the
displacement. Again, the system position will
change with a disturbance, such as an additional
force, and the system will not detect or correct for
the disturbance.

Closed-Loop (Feedback Control) Systems

The disadvantages of open-loop systems, namely

sensitivity to disturbances and inability to correct for
these disturbances, may be overcome in closed-loop
systems.
The input transducer converts the form of the input
to the form used by the controller. An output
transducer, or sensor, measures the output response
and converts it into the form used by the controller.
The first summing junction algebraically adds the
signal from the input to the signal from the output,
which arrives via the feedback path, the return path
from the output to the summing junction. In Figure
1.6(b), the output signal is subtracted from the input
signal. The result is generally called the actuating
signal.

Closed-Loop (Feedback Control)

Systems (cont..)
However, in systems where both the input and output
transducers have unity gain (that is, the transducer
amplifies its input by 1), the actuating signal's value is
equal to the actual difference between the input and
the output. Under this condition, the actuating signal
is called the error.
The closed-loop system compensates for disturbances
by measuring the output response, feeding that
measurement back through a feedback path, and
comparing that response to the input at the summing
junction. If there is any difference between the two
responses, the system drives the plant, via the
actuating signal, to make a correction. If there is no
difference, the system does not drive the plant, since
the plant's response is already the desired response.

Advantages of Closed Loop system

Greater accuracy than open-loop systems
Transient and steady-state responses can be
controlled more easily
More complex and expensive than open-loop
systems
Requires monitoring the plant output

Missile Launching and Guidance system

The missile launching and guidance system of fig
1.10 is a sophisticated example of military
applications of feedback control. The target plane is
sited by a rotating radar antenna which then locks
in and continuously tracks the target.
Depending upon the position and velocity of the
plane as given by the radar output data , the launch
computer calculates the firing angle in terms of a
launch command signal, which when amplified
through a power amplifier derives the launcher
( derive motor) . The launcher angular position is
feedback to launch computer and the missile is
triggered as soon as the error between the launch
command signal and the missile firing angle
becomes zero.

Missile Launching and Guidance system

(cont)
After being fired the missile enters the radar
beam which is tracking the target.
The control system contained within the missile
now receives
a guidance signal from the beam which
automatically adjusts the control surface of the
missile such that the missile rides along the
beam, finally homing on to the target .
it is important to note that the actual missile
launching and guidance system is far more
complex requiring control of guns bearing as
well as elevation.

Automatic Aircraft landing system

The automatic aircraft landing system is simplified
form of Fig. 1.5 . The system consists of three
basic parts : the aircraft, the radar unit and the
controlling unit.
The radar unit measures the approximate vertical
and lateral positions of the aircraft which are then
transmitted to the controlling unit .
From these measurements, the controlling unit
calculates appropriate pitch and bank commands.
These commands are then transmitted to the
aircraft autopilots which in turn cause the aircraft
to respond.
Assuming that the lateral control system and the
vertical control system are independent .

Automatic Aircraft landing

system( cont)
In fig. 1.5 (b). The aircraft lateral position, y(t), is
the lateral distance of the aircraft from the
extended centerline of the landing area on the
deck of the aircraft carrier. The control system
attempts to force y(t) to zero. The radar unit
measures y(kT) is the sampled value of y(t), with
T= 0.05s and k= 0,1,2,3 .
Two unwanted inputs called disturbances appear
in to the system. These are (i) wind gust
affecting the position of the aircraft and (ii)
radar noise present in the measurement of the
aircraft position .

Analysis and Design Objectives

Analysis is the process by which a system's
performance is determined. For example, we evaluate
its transient response and steady-state error to
determine if they meet the desired specifications.
Design is the process by which a system's
performance is created or changed. For example, if a
system's transient response and steady-state error
are analyzed and found not to meet the specifications,
then we change parameters or add additional
components to meet the specifications.
A control system is dynamic: It responds to an input
by undergoing a transient response before reaching a
steady-state response that generally resembles the
input. We have already identified these two responses
and cited a position control system (an elevator) as an
example.

Analysis and Design Objectives (cont..)

The three major objectives of systems analysis and
design: producing the desired transient response,
reducing steady-state error, and achieving stability.
We also address some other design concerns, such
as cost and the sensitivity of system performance to
changes in parameters.
Transient Response: Transient response is
important. In the case of an elevator, a slow
transient response makes passengers impatient,
whereas an excessively rapid response makes them
uncomfortable. If the elevator oscillates about the
arrival floor for more than a second, a disconcerting
feeling can result. Transient response is also
important for structural reasons: Too fast a transient
response could cause permanent physical damage.

Analysis and Design Objectives (cont..)

Steady-State Response : Another analysis and
design goal focuses on the steady-state response. As
we have seen, this response resembles the input and is
usually what remains after the transients have decayed
to zero.
For example, this response may be an elevator stopped
near the fourth floor or the head of a disk drive finally
stopped at the correct track. We are concerned about
the accuracy of the steady-state response.
An elevator must be level enough with the floor for the
passengers to exit, and a read/write head not
positioned over the commanded track results in
computer errors. An antenna tracking a satellite must
keep the satellite well within its beam width in order
not to lose track.

Analysis and Design Objectives (cont..)

Stability : Discussion of transient response and
steady-state error is moot if the system does not
have stability. In order to explain stability, we start
from the fact that the total response of a system is
the sum of the natural response and the forced
response.
Natural response describes the way the system
dissipates or acquires energy. The form or nature
of this response is dependent only on the system,
not the input. On the other hand, the form or
nature of the forced response is dependent on the
input. Thus, for a linear system, we can write :
Total Response = Natural Response + Forced
Response

Analysis and Design Objectives (cont..)

For a control system to be useful, the natural response
must (1) eventually approach zero, thus leaving only the
forced response, or (2) oscillate. In some systems,
however, the natural response grows without bound rather
than diminish to zero or oscillate. Eventually, the natural
response is so much greater than the forced response that
the system is no longer controlled. This condition, called
instability, could lead to self-destruction of the physical
device if limit stops are not part of the design.
. For example, the elevator would crash through the floor
or exit through the ceiling; an aircraft would go into an
uncontrollable roll; or an antenna commanded to point to
a target would rotate, line up with the target, but then
begin to oscillate about the target with growing
oscillations and increasing velocity until the motor or
amplifiers reached their output limits or until the antenna
was damaged structurally.

Analysis and Design Objectives (cont..)

Control systems must be designed to be stable.
That is, their natural response must decay to zero
as time approaches infinity, or oscillate. In many
systems the transient response you see on a time
response plot can be directly related to the
natural response.
Thus, if the natural response decays to zero as
time approaches infinity, the transient response
will also die out, leaving only the forced response.
If the system is stable, the proper transient
response and steady-state error characteristics
can be designed. Stability is our third analysis
and design objective.

The Design process of control system

Step-3: Draw Schematic

Step-4: Draw Block Diagram

Mathematical Models
Model the system mathematically using physical
laws.
Kirchoffs Voltage Law - The sum of voltages
around a closed path is zero.
Kirchoffs Current Law - The sum of currents
flowing from a node is zero.
Newtons Laws - The sum of forces on a body is
zero (considering mass times acceleration as a
force).
The sum of moments on a body is zero.
The model describes the relationship between the
input and the output of the dynamic system.

Step-5: Reduce the Block Diagram

Step-6: Analyze and Design

The input signal is the desired position of

the antenna.
Several common forms of input functions
are used for test purposes

Thanks..