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Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Chapter
16-
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial
2. Small load
3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
Linearelastic
Non-Linearelastic
Chapter
26-
2. Small load
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear
elastic + plastic
3. Unload
planes
still
sheared
plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
plastic
Chapter
36-
Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, :
Ft
Ft
Area, Ao
Area, Ao
Ft
Ft
lb
N
= 2f or
=
2
in
m
Ao
original area
before loading
Shear stress, :
Fs
Fs
F
= s
Ao
Ft
Chapter
46-
Ao = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
Ao
Ac
M
2R
Fs
Ao
Fs
Ao
Ski lift
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
Chapter
56-
Ao
Ao
Note: compressive
structure member
( < 0 here).
Chapter
66-
Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
Hydrostatic compression:
> 0
z > 0
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
h< 0
Chapter
76-
Engineering Strain
Tensile strain:
Lateral strain:
/2
Lo
wo
Shear strain:
L
L
wo
Lo
L /2
= x/y = tan
x
90 -
y
90
Strain is always
dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter
86-
Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test
machine
extensometer
Typical tensile
specimen
specimen
Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
Chapter
96-
Hooke's Law:
=E
F
E
Linearelastic
simple
tension
test
Chapter
106 -
Poisson's ratio,
Poisson's ratio, :
metals: ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~ 0.25
polymers: ~ 0.40
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
: dimensionless
Chapter
116 -
Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal
Chapter
126 -
Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
M
G
=G
Elastic Bulk
modulus, K:
V
P = -K
Vo
V P
Vo
E
2(1 )
E
3(1 2)
simple
torsion
test
P
P
pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
Vol chg.
= V
Chapter
136 -
E(GPa)
200
100
80
60
40
109 Pa
Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
/fibers
Semicond
Diamond
Tungsten
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Tin
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride
CFRE(|| fibers)*
<111>
Si crystal
<100>
A FRE(|| fibers)*
Glass -soda
GFRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete
GFRE*
20
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*
Graphite
Polyester
PET
PS
PC
CFRE( fibers) *
AFRE( fibers) *
Epoxy only
PP
HDPE
PTFE
LDPE
Wood(
grain)
Chapter
146 -
FL o Fw o
L
EA o
EA o
F
/2
Ao
wo
Lo
Simple torsion:
2ML o
r o4 G
M = moment
= angle of twist
Lo
2ro
L /2
Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter
156 -
engineering stress,
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
engineering strain,
plastic strain
Chapter
166 -
Yield Strength, y
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress,
y = yield strength
Note: for 2 inch sample
= 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.004 in
engineering strain,
p = 0.002
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Polymers
Composites/
fibers
200
Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr
100
70
60
50
40
Al (6061) a
30
20
10
Tin (pure)
dry
PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
PVC humid
PP
HDPE
LDPE
Hard to measure,
300
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd
700
600
500
400
1000
Hard to measure ,
Steel (4140) qt
Room temperature
values
Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
Chapter
186 -
Chapter
196 -
Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
TS
F = fracture or
ultimate
strength
engineering
stress
Neck acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter
206 -
5000
3000
2000
1000
300
200
100
40
30
20
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Polymers
Composites/
fibers
C fibers
Aramid fib
E-glass fib
Steel (4140) qt
W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a
AFRE(|| fiber)
GFRE(|| fiber)
CFRE(|| fiber)
Diamond
Si nitride
Al oxide
Si crystal
<100>
Glass-soda
Concrete
Graphite
Room temperature
values
Nylon 6,6
PC PET
PVC
PP
HDPE
wood(|| fiber)
GFRE( fiber)
CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)
LDPE
10
wood (
fiber)
Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure:
Engineering
tensile
stress,
Lf Lo
x 100
%EL
Lo
smaller %EL
larger %EL
Lo
Ao
Af
%RA =
Ao - Af
x 100
Ao
Chapter
226 -
Lf
Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Engineering
tensile
stress,
Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region
Ur
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to
1
Ur y y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter
246 -
y i
y o
Stress
2. Unload
1. Load
3. Reapply
load
Strain
Adapted from Fig. 6.17,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Elastic strain
recovery
Chapter
256 -
Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
e.g.,
10 mm sphere
D
most
plastics
brasses
Al alloys
measure size
of indent after
removing load
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.
d
easy to machine
steels
file hard
cutting
tools
nitrided
steels
diamond
increasing hardness
Chapter
266 -
Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter
276 -
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
Chapter
286 -
T F Ai
T ln i o
T 1
T ln1
Chapter
296 -
Hardening
An increase in y due to plastic deformation.
large hardening
y
1
y
small hardening
T K T
true stress (F/A)
hardening exponent:
n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter
306 -
Mean
Standard Deviation
xn
x
n
n
xi x
s
n 1
1
2
working
between
1.2 and 4
working
220,000N
d /4
2
y
N
1045 plain
carbon steel:
y = 310 MPa
TS = 565 MPa
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Lo
F = 220,000N
Chapter
326 -
Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
Chapter
336 -
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:
Core Problems:
Self-help Problems:
Chapter
346 -