Chapter 4

Excitation and recombination mechanisms in

photoluminescence with a trapping level for electrons.

Capture processes at a recombination level: (a) hole capture (Rp) at a filled

recombination center; (b) electron capture (Rn) at an empty center. Emission processes
are Gp and Gn. If a mono-energetic
trap level involved, it is called a Shockley-Read-Hall

Spreading of a pulse of electrons by diffusion

An arbitrary electron concentration gradient in one dimension: (a) division of n(x) into segments of length equal to
a mean free path for the electrons; (b) expanded view of two of the segments centered at x0.

Drift and diffusion directions for electrons and holes in a carrier gradient and an
electric field. Particle flow directions are indicated by dashed arrows, and the
resulting currents are indicated by solid arrows.

I A( Jn Jp )
dn
dp
A( qn n qDn
) A( qp p qD p
)
dx
dx

TheequilibriumFermilevelisconstant

Rate from1 to 2 N1 ( E ) f1 ( E )N 2 ( E )[1 f 2 ( E )]

Rate from 2 to 1 N 2 ( E ) f 2 ( E )N1 ( E )[1 f1 ( E )]
At equilibrium these must be
equal:

N1 ( E ) f1 ( E ) N2 ( E )[1 f2 ( E )] N2 ( E ) f2 ( E ) N1 ( E )[1 f1 ( E )]

N1 f1 N2 N1 f1 N2 f2 N2 f2 N1 N2 f2 N1 f1

f1 ( E ) f2 ( E ), that is, [1 e

( E EF 1 )/ kT 1

EF 1 EF 2

] [1 e

( E EF 2 )/ kT 1

dp( x)
dx

J p ( x) = q p p ( x) ( x) qD p

( x) =

Dp

=0 in equilibrium

1 dp( x)
p ( x) dx

p = ni e( Ei EF ) / kT
Substituting for p, we get,

EF=constant in equilibrium, and

Einstein Relation:

( x) =

Dp

1 dEi dEF
[
]
kT dx
dx

dV( x)
1 dEi
( x) =
=
dx
q dx

Dp
kT Dn
=

p
q
n

The mobility and diffusivity are

related because drift velocity is
superimposed on top of random
Brownian motion, which also drives
diffusion.
kT/q is the thermal voltage = 26
meV at 300K.

n0 ni e

Equilibrium

Non Equilibrium

EF Ei

kT

n ni e

Fn Ei

kT

Equilibrium

p0 ni e

Majority carrier
IMREF changes
little from EF.
Minority carrier
IMREF changes
a lot.

EF Ei
)
kT

Fp Ei
)
(

kT

Non Equilibrium

p ni e

dn(x)
J n ( x) = q n n( x) ( x) + qDn
dx
Using

n = ni e

( Fn Ei ) / kT

F
G
H

dn( x ) d
n( x ) dFn dE i
( Fn Ei )/ kT
[ni e
]

dx
dx
kT dx
dx

IJ
K

dFn dEi
J n ( x) q n n( x) ( x) n n( x)

dx
dx
Using Einstein relation,
total electron current density,

Similar relation for holes!

Dn
kT
=
n
q

and electric field,

( x) =

dFn
J n ( x ) n n( x )
dx

dV( x)
1 dEi
=
dx
q dx

Continuity Equation: Current entering and leaving a volume xA

p
1

. J p G p R p
t
q

and no drift current

p(x) = p0 + p (x)

where C2= p

Haynes-Shockley time-of-flight experiment

education\semicon\diffusion\diffusion2.html
Drift and diffusion of a hole pulse in an n-type bar: (a) sample geometry; (b) position and
shape of the pulse for several
times during its drift down the

bar.

SemiconductorShockleyEquations
Continuity equations:
p
1
. J p G p R p
t
q
n
1

. J n G n R n
t
q

Current (conduction) equations:

dFp
dp
J p qp p qD p
p p
dx
dx

J n qnn qDn

dF
dn
n n n
dx
dx

I A( Jn Jp )
A(qn n qDn

dn
dp
) A(qp p qD p )
dx
dx

Maxwells equations: Poisson

equation or Gauss law:

d 2V
2
dx
J displacement C

dV
dt

For high electric fields, get

hot carriers. If fields are
slowly varying in space/time,
we can use field dependent
mobility/ diffusivity to describe
hot carriers. Otherwise, need
Energy balance equations.
Continuity, current and energy
balance equations come from
the Boltzmann transport
equation.

Chapter4SUMMARY
1.Excesscarriers,abovetheequilibriumvaluescontributedbydoping,maybe
createdoptically(orbyelectricalbiasingindevices).Generationrecombination
(GR)ofelectronholepairs(EHPs)canoccurbyabsorptionofphotonswithenergy
greaterthanthebandgap,balancedbydirectorindirectrecombination.
2.GRprocessescanbemediatedbytraps,especiallydeeptrapsnearmidgap.
BandtobandortrapassistedGRprocessesleadtoanaveragelifetimeforthe
excesscarriers.Carrierlifetimemultipliedbytheopticalgenerationrate,establishes
asteadysteadyexcesspopulationofcarriers.Thesquarerootofcarrierlifetime
multipliedbythediffusioncoefficientdeterminesthediffusionlength.
3.InequilibriumwehaveaconstantFermilevel.Innonequilibriumwithexcess
carriers,FermilevelsaregeneralizedtoseparatequasiFermilevelsforelectrons
andholes.ThequasiFermilevelsplittingisameasureofthedeparturefrom
equilibrium.MinoritycarrierquasiFermilevelschangemorethanmajoritycarrier
quasiFermilevelsbecausetherelativechangeofminoritycarriersislarger.
GradientsinthequasiFermileveldeterminethenetdriftdiffusioncurrent.
4.Diffusionfluxmeasurestheflowofcarriersfromhightolowconcentration
regions,andisgivenbythediffusivitytimestheconcentrationgradient.The
directionofdiffusioncurrentisoppositetothefluxforthenegativeelectrons,butin
thesamedirectionforthepositiveholes.Carrierdiffusivityisrelatedtomobilityby
thethermalvoltagekT/q(Einsteinrelation).
5.Whencarriersmoveinasemiconductorduetodrift/diffusion,thetimedependent
carrierconcentrationsatdifferentpointsisgivenbythecarriercontinuityequation
whichsaysthatifmorecarriersflowintoapointthanflowout,theconcentration
willincreaseasafunctionoftimeandviceversa.GRprocessesalsoaffectcarrier

concentrations.

Chapter 5: PN Junctions

Equilibrium p-n junction

(a) isolated, neutral regions of ptype and n-type material and
energy bands for the isolated
regions; (b) junction, showing
space charge in the transition
region W, the resulting electric
field and contact potential V0, and
the separation of the energy
bands; (c) directions of the four
components of particle flow within
the transition region, and the
resulting current directions.

d 2V

dx 2

education\pn\pnformation3\PNFormation2.htm
education\pn\pnformation2\pnformation2.htm

Space charge and electric field distribution within the transition region of a p-n junction
with Nd > Na: (a) the transition region, with x = 0 defined at the metallurgical junction; (b)
charge density within the
transition region, neglecting the free carriers; (c) the electric
field distribution, where the reference direction is arbitrarily taken as the +x-direction.

V)

Effects of a bias at a p-n junction;

transition region width and electric
field, electrostatic potential, energy
band diagram, and particle flow and
current directions within W for (a)
equilibrium, (b) forward bias, and (c)
reverse bias.
The diffusion current changes
exponentially with bias because of
the exponential Boltzmann
distribution of carrier energies. The
opposing drift current is
independent of bias because here
the current is (minority carrier)
supply limited.
education\pn\biasedPN2\BiasedPN2.html

education\pn\biasedPN\BiasedPN.html

Forward-biased junction
pn pno pno (e
ni 2
pno
Nd
nn pn

qV

kT

1)e

xn

L p

Two methods for calculating junction

current from the excess minority carrier
distributions: (a) diffusion currents at the
edges of the transition region; (b) stored
charge in the distributions divided by the
minority carrier lifetimes; (c) the diode
equation.

education\pn\current\pn.html
Electron and hole components of current in a forward-biased p-n junction. Far from
junction, have majority carrier
DRIFT, and close to junction

majority carrier
DRIFT/DIFFUSION, and minority carrier DIFFUSION.

Reverse-biased p-n junction

(a)

Minority carrier distributions

near the reverse-biased
junction; (b) variation of the
quasi-Fermi levels. It splits
due to applied voltage, but
opposite to the way for
forward bias.

(b)

Reverse saturation current

is due to diffusion of
minority carriers to edge of
depletion region, followed by
drift. Current is voltage
independent because it
depends on how often
carriers are supplied to
depletion edge, not how fast
they travel across it.

Reverse breakdown in a p-n junction

Zener or tunneling breakdown

(a) heavily doped junction at equilibrium; (b) reverse bias with electron

tunneling from p to n; (c) IV characteristic.

Impact ionization or
avalanche breakdown

Variation of avalanche breakdown voltage in abrupt p+-n junctions, as a function

of donor concentration on the n side, for several semiconductors.

A breakdown or Zener diode: (a) IV characteristic; (b) application as a voltage

regulator. If Vo voltage greater than ~10 V, breakdown due to avalanche.

Piecewise-linear approximations of junction diode characteristics: (a) the

ideal diode; (b) ideal diode with an offset voltage; (c) ideal diode with an offset
voltage and a resistance to account for slope in the forward characteristic.
Want high breakdown and low series resistance for rectifiers. In p+-p-n+ or
p+-n-n+ diode, as p or n doping decreases avalanche breakdown voltage
increases, but punchthrough voltage decreases, and resistance increases. If

length of region decreases, punchthrough worse, but resistance decreases.

Beveled edge
and guard ring
to prevent edge
breakdown
under reverse
bias: (a) diode
with beveled
edge; (b)
closeup view of
edge, showing
reduction of
depletion region
near the bevel;
(c) guard ring.
A p+-n-n+
junction diode:
(a) device
configuration;
(b) zero-bias
condition; (c)
reverse-biased
to punchthrough.

Negative differential
resistance useful for
oscillators. Depends on
peak-to-valley ratio.

Current in a reverse-biased
p-n junction due to thermal
generation of carriers by
(a) band-to-band EHP
generation, and
(b) generation from a
recombination level.
Generation lifetime decreases for
higher trap concentrations
and deeper traps.

I GR

qni
AW
2

Similarly, in forward bias, injected

carriers can recombine via traps
in the depletion region unlike in an
ideal diode.

I Io ' e

qV
nkT

,n 2

High bias effects: high level injection and ohmic drops

Examples of contact
potential for a heavily
doped p-n junction: (a)
at equilibrium; (b)
approaching the
maximum forward bias
V = V0

Forward and reverse current-voltage characteristics plotted on semi-log scales, with

current normalized with respect to saturation current, I0; (a) the ideal forward
characteristic is an exponential with an ideality factor, n = 1 (dashed straight line on loglinear plot). The actual forward characteristics of a typical diode (colored line) have four
regimes of operation; (b) ideal reverse characteristic (dashed line) is a voltageindependent current = I0. Actual leakage characteristics (colored
line) are higher due to

generation in the depletion region, and also show breakdown at high voltages.

Depletioncapacitanceofajunction
Capacitancerepresentschargestorage:

Q
C
V
Semiconductorvoltagedependentsmall
signalcapacitance:

Q
C (V )
V
C

A
2 (V0 V ) / qN d )

(a) p+-n junction showing variation of depletion edge on n side with reverse bias.
Electrically, the structure looks like a parallel plate capacitor whose dielectric is the
depletion region, and the
plates are the space charge neutral
regions; (b) variation of
depletion capacitance with reverse bias. Neglect xp0 in the p+ material.

Approximations to
diffused junctions: (a)
shallow diffusion
(abrupt); (b) deep
drive-in diffusion with
source removed
(graded).
Properties of the
linearly graded
junction transition
region: (a) net impurity
profile; (b) net charge
distribution; (c)
electric field; (d)
electrostatic potential.

Diffusioncapacitanceinpnjunctions

dQ p

q
Cs
Ac
pn e
dV
3kT
Aq 2 L p

dI
Gs

pn e
dV
kT p

(a)

(b)

qV
kT

qV
kT

Steady-state minority carrier distribution for a forward bias, V (colored lines), and reduced forward bias, VdV (dashed colored lines) in a long diode. The transient case when the current is reduced suddenly is
shown by the black, dashed lines. Although the carrier distributions can change quickly near the junctions,
they stay close to the original steady-state distributions far from the junctions at first. Gradually, the carrier
distributions approach the new steady-state distributions for V-dV (dashed colored lines); (b) minority carrier
distributions in a short diode; (c) diffusion capacitance as a function of forward bias in long and short
diodes.

Reclaimable charge is less than stored charge.

Storage delay time in a p+-n diode

(a) circuit and input square wave; (b)
hole distribution in the n-region as a
function of time during the transient;
(c) variation of current and voltage
with time; (d) sketch of transient
current and voltage on the device IV
characteristic.

A long P+-N junction forward bias current is switched for I F1 to IF2 at t = 0. Calculate the stored charge Q p as
a function of time in the N-region.
I
IF2

IF1

Q p 0 IF1 p
Q p I F 2 p
IF2

Qp t

dQp
dt

IF 2 Qp s

sQp s I F1 p
s
p
1
I
Q p s F 2 I F1 p
1
s
s
p
t
t

p
p
Q p t I F 2 p 1 e IF 1 pe

Schottky barrier formed by contacting an n-type semiconductor with a metal

having a larger work function

(a) Band diagrams for the metal and the semiconductor before joining; (b) equilibrium band
diagram for the junction.
Work function is the difference between Fermi level and the reference vacuum level. Electron
affinity is the difference between the conduction band and the vacuum level. Electron affinity plus
energy.

bandgap gives valence band

Effects of forward and reverse bias on the junction : (a) forward bias; (b) reverse bias; (c) typical IV characteristic.

Schottky barrier between a p-type semiconductor and a metal having a smaller work function: (a)
band diagrams before joining; (b) band diagram for the junction at equilibrium.
Sometimes have so many
surface defects or surface states on
semiconductor, Fermi level is
pinned at that energy and the Schottky barrier is determined by that.

Ohmicmetalsemiconductorcontacts
(a) for an n-type
semiconductor;
(b) the equilibrium band
diagram for the junction;
(c) for a p-type
semiconductor;
(d) the junction at equilibrium.
We get an ohmic contact if
there is an increase of the
majority carrier
concentration in the
semiconductor due to
transfer of carriers from
the metal after contact.

We can get a functional

ohmic contact with heavy
doping which causes a
tunnel junction, or by
creating defects which
causes a leaky junction.

Figure 545
An ideal heterojunction between a p-type, wide band gap semiconductor an n-type
narrower band gap semiconductor: (a) band diagrams before joining; (b) band
discontinuities and band bending at equilibrium.

Chapter5SUMMARY

1.Diodesandothersemiconductordevicesaremadebycombinationsofstepssuchasoxidation,selectivedoping(viaimplantordiffusion),
anddepositionofvariousinsulatorsormetalsinconcertwithetching,usingpatternsformedbyphotolithography.

2.Whenwebringapandntypesemiconductorintocontacttomakeapnjunctiondiode,carriersdiffuseacrossthejunctionuntilwegeta
flatFermilevelinequilibrium.Abuiltinjunctionpotentialbarrierisformedbetweenthepandnsideswhichreflectsthevoltagedrop
acrossthedepletionregion.Thisisadynamicequilibrium,wherethereiscontinualdiffusionofelectronsfromthentothepside(andholes
formpton),butatareducedrateoverthepotentialbarrier,andthesefluxesarecancelledbyopposingflowsofminoritycarriersdiffusingto
thedepletionedgesandgettingsweptacrossthejunction.

3.TheelectrostaticsofthedepletionregionisdeterminedbysolvingthePoissonequation.Foruniformlydopedabruptstepjunctionsweget
linearlyvaryingelectricfieldswhicharehighestatthemetallurgicaljunction.Wegetawiderdepletionregiononthemorelightlydoped
sideandequalandoppositedepletionchargesonthetwosidesofthejunction.

4.ForanidealShockleydiode,oneassumesthereisnegligiblegenerationrecombinationinsidethedepletionregion.Inforwardbias,the
builtinpotentialbarrierislowered,makingitexponentiallyeasierformajoritycarrierstodiffuseacross.

5.Theopposingminoritycarrierfluxesareunaffectedbecausetheyarelimitedbyhowoftenthefewminoritycarriersdiffusetothe
depletionedges.Farfromthejunction,thecurrentiscarriedbydriftofthemajoritycarriers,whichareinjectedacrossthejunctiontothe
othersideasminoritycarrierswheretheygiverisetodiffusioncurrents.

6.Inreversebias,foridealdiodes,thevoltageindependentreversecurrentisduetothecollectionofthermallygeneratedminoritycarriers
oneithersidediffusingtothedepletionregion,andthenbeingsweptacross.Thecurrentflowfromntopissmall,andisthebasisofdiode
rectifiers.

7.Forhighreversebiases,diodesundergo(reversible)breakdownduetoquantummechanicaltunneling(Zenermechanism)acrossanarrow
depletionregionforveryheavilydopedjunctions,orduetoimpactionizationoravalanchemultiplicationofcarriersinawiderdepletion
regionforlightlydopedjunctions.Fornarrowdiodes,therecanalsobepunchthroughfromonecontacttotheother.

8.Varyingthebiasleadstodiodeswitching;thediodetransientbehaviorcanbefoundbysolvingthecontinuityequation,forexampleusing
Laplacetransforms,withsuitableinitialandboundaryconditions.

9.Smallsignalcapacitanceinasemiconductordeviceiscausedbychangeofthechargestorageasfunctionofbias.Therearetwo
componentsofdiodecapacitance:depletioncapacitanceduetoexposeddopantchargesinthedepletionregion(dominatesinreversebias),
anddiffusioncapacitanceduetostoredexcessmobilecarriers(dominatesinforwardbias)

10.RealdiodescandeviatefromShockleyidealdiodeswhichhavenegligiblegenerationrecombinationinthedepletionregion.
Generationrecombinationinthedepletionregionincreasesthediodeidealityfactor,n,from1to2inforwardbias,andintroducesaroughly
squarerootvoltagedependenceofreverseleakagecurrent.

11.Highlevelcarrierinjectionforlargeforwardbias,wheretheinjectedminoritycarrierconcentrationiscomparabletothebackground
majoritycarrierconcentration,alsomakesn=2.Seriesresistanceeffectsalsoplayaroleforhighercurrents.

12.Gradedjunctions,wherethedopingconcentrationsoneithersidearenotconstant,arequalitativelysimilartoabruptjunctionsbutare
hardertoanalyze.TheyhavedifferentCVthanabruptjunctions.

13.MetalsemiconductorjunctionsbehaveasSchottkydiodes(iftheFermilevelalignmentsaresuchthatthereisadepletionofmajority
carriersinthesemiconductor)orohmiccontacts(ifthereisnodepletionregionformedinthesemiconductor.)

14.Junctionsbetweendissimilarsemiconductorsarecalledheterojunctions.Withrespecttoavacuumreferencelevel,onelooksatthe
conductionbandedges(electronaffinities)andbandgapstodeterminethebandoffsets,andtheFermilevels(workfunctions)todetermine
thedirectionofcarriertransfer.ElectronsflowfromthehightolowFermilevelregions,andholestheoppositeway.