Radioactive Decays

transmutations of nuclides
Radioactivity means the emission of alpha () particles,
beta () particles, or gamma photons () from atomic nuclei.
Radioactive decay is a process by which the nuclei of a
nuclide emit , or rays.
In the radioactive process, the nuclide undergoes a
transmutation, converting to another nuclide.
Radioactive Decays

A Summary of Radioactive Decay Kinetics

Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of
nuclei. Initially (at t = 0), we have No nuclei, and at time t, we
have N nuclei. This rate is proportional to N, and the
proportional constant is called decay constant .
dN
A = = N
dt
ln N = ln No t

Integration gives
Also A = Ao e t

or

N = No e t

What is decay rate?

Radioactive
Decays
How does decay rate vary with
time?

Radioactive Decay Kinetics - plot

Variation of N as a function of time t

No

N = No e
Also A = Ao e

- t
- t

Number of radioactive
nuclei decrease
exponentially with time
as indicated by the
graph here.
As a result, the
radioactivity vary in the
same manner.
Note

N =A
No = A o

Radioactive Decays

Decay Constant and Half-life

Variation of N as a function of time t

Ln(N or A)

No

N = No e -

Also A = A o e -

ln N1 ln N2
=
t1 t 2

Be able to apply these

equations!

t * = ln 2

N = No e t
A = Ao e t
ln N = ln No t
ln A = ln Ao t
t
Radioactive Decays

Determine half life, t4

Radioactive Decay of Mixtures

The graph shows radioactivity of a sample containing 3 nuclides with
rather different half life. Explain why, and how to resolve the mixture.
Apparent Radioactivity of 3Nuclides
ln A

ln A total
ln A 1
ln A 2
ln A 3

Ln A

t
Analyze and explain

Radioactive Decays

Radioactive Consecutive Decay and Growth

Radioactivity of Decay Product
Ln A

238U 234 Th + 4
234Th 234Pa +

Total Activity
Activity due to 238U
Activity due to 234 Th

Explain the variation of total radioactivity versus time in a sample

containing one pure radioactive nuclide, but its daughter is also
radioactive with a much shorter half
life.Decays
Radioactive

Radioactive consecutive decay animation

See Simulation in Radioactive Decay in
SCI270 website
The simulation will be used to illustrate
various conditions.

Radioactive Decays

Applications of Radioactive Decay Kinetic

Half life is not affected by chemical and
physical state of matter.
Dating is an application of radioactive
decay kinetics. Describe the principle for
this method.
Anthropologists, biologists, chemists,
diagnosticians, engineers, geologists,
physicists, and physicians often use
radioactive nuclides in their respective
work.
Radioactive Decays

Nuclide Half life

219
Th90 1 s
26
Na11 1s
40 17
Cl
1.4 min
32 15
P
14.3 d
14 6
C
5730 y
235 92
U
7.04x108 y
238 92
U
4.46x109 y

Decay and Transmutation of Nuclides

Alpha, , decay emits a helium nucleus from an atomic nucleus.
Transmutation of Nuclides in Alpha Decays

PZ

DZ 2 + 4He2

A4

Alpha Decay
P

A Z

DZ2

A4

4He2

Radioactive Decays
How do nuclides transform in alpha
decay?

Nuclide Transmutation of Decay

A

PZ

DZ 2 + 4He2

A4

Heavy Nuclide alpha emitters

235 92
U 231Th90 + 42 (t, 7.13108 y)
U92

238

Po84

208

Th90 + 42 (t, 4.51109 y)

234

Pb82 + 42 (t, 2.9 y)

204

How do nuclides transform in alpha decay?

Mass and charge change by Radioactive
what? Decays

10

Nuclide Transmutation of Decay

A Z
P A 4DZ 2 + 4He2
light nuclides
5
He 1n0 + 42 (t, 210-21 s),
5
8

Li 1p1 + 42 (t, ~10-21 s),

Be 2 42 (t, 210-16 s).

Some rare earth (144 Nd, 146Sm, 147Sm,

147
Eu, ...174Hf) are emitters:
144
Nd 140Ce + 42 (t, 51015 y),
174

Hf

170

Yb + 42 (t, 21015 y).

Radioactive Decays

11

Nuclide Transmutation of Decay

Beta decay consists of three processes: emitting an electron, emitting a
positron, or capturing an electron from the atomic orbital.
Electron emission
P + AD Z + 1 +

A Z

or

A Z

Positron emission
A

or
A

DZ + 1 + + (emit antineutrino,
Electron capture

PZ ADZ 1 + + +
PZ + ADZ 1 +

+.
What is beta decay?

(absorbs a neutrino)

PZ + e ADZ 1 +

PZ + e + ADZ

or

1
Radioactive Decays

12

Nuclide Transmutation of Decay examples

n0

Other examples of beta decay

p1 +
+
1

Beta Decay of Neutron

Proton
Neutron

Electron

C6 14N7 + + (t,
5720 y)
40 19
K 40Ca20 + +
(1.27e9 y)
50 23
V 50Cr24 + +
(6e15 y)
87
Rb37 87Sr38 + +
What is the relationship between the
(5.7e10 y)
parent
nuclide and the daughter
115
In49 115Sn50 + +
nuclide in decay?
(5e14 y)
14

Radioactive Decays

13

Nuclide Transmutation of Decay examples

In + decay, the atomic number decreases by 1.
Na11 21Ne10 + + +
30 15
P
30Si14 + + +
34
Cl17 34S16 + + +
116
Sb51 116Sn50 + + +
21

(t, 22s)
(2.5 m)
(1.6 s)
(60 m)

What is the relationship between the

parent nuclide and the daughter
nuclide in + decay?
Radioactive Decays

14

Nuclide Transmutation of EC examples

V23 48Ti22 + + + +
(50%)
48
V + e 48Ti + (+ X-ray)
Electron Capture and X-ray Emission
(50%)
48

X-ray
What is the relationship
between the parent nuclide
and the daughter nuclide in
electron capture (EC)?
What can be detected in EC?

EC

Radioactive Decays

15

Electron capture and internal conversion

Electron Capture and Internal Conversion

EC

Internal
conversion

Explain electron capture and

internal conversion processes.
What are internal conversion
electrons?

Radioactive Decays

16

Transmutation of gamma decay

Gamma decay emits energy from atomic nucleus as photons.
Gamma, , decay follows and decay or from isomers.

Tc 99Tc +
60
Co 60mNi + + (antineutrino)
60m
Ni 60Ni +
99m

Co
24
Na
60

Ni + + + (t, 5.24 y)
24
Mg + + + (2.75 MeV, t, 15 h).

60

What is gamma decay?

Radioactive Decays

17

-decay and Internal Conversion

Internal Conversion Electron and X-ray Emission
X-ray

Internal
conversion
electron

Internal conversion electrons show up in spectrum.

X-ray energy is slightly different from the photon energy.
Radioactive Decays
What are internal conversion electrons?

18

Apply
Transmutation in Other Decays
conservation of
mass, nucleon,
Transmutation in proton decays
53m
and charge to
Co27 (1.5 %) 52Fe26 + 1p1
explain
(98.5 %) 53Fe26 + + + .
transmutation in
Beta-delayed Alpha and Proton Emissions:
all radioactive
8
B 8mBe + + + (t, 0.78 s)
decays.
8
8m

Li Be + + (t, 0.82 s)
8m
Be 2
These are called +, and decays respectively.
Another examples of +and +p+ decay:
20
Na 20Ne + + + (t, 0.39 s)
20
Ne 16O +
Te

111

Sb + + + (t, 19.5 s)
111
Sb 110Sn + p+.
111

Radioactive Decays

19

Radioactivity - Nuclide Chart for Nuclear Properties

Nuclide: a type of atoms with a certain number of protons, say Z, and mass
number M, usually represented by MEZ, E be the symbol of element Z.
Periodic table of elements organizes chemical properties of elements.
Nuclide chart organizes unique nuclear properties of nuclides (isotopes).
Nuclear properties:
mass, binding energy, mass excess, abundance
radioactive decay mode, decay energy, half-life, decay constant,
neutron capture cross section, cross section for nuclear reactions,
energy levels of nucleons,
nuclear spin, nuclear magnetic properties etc.
Radioactive Decays

20

Nuclide Chart for Nuclear Properties

6

Be
4

Be, ?
p
6.019725

Be, 53.3 d
EC 0.86
7.01928

Li
3
3

He,0.0001
%
3.01603

He
2
H
1

H,99.99
%
1.007825

N
0
p # 0
n
#

H, 0.015%

2.0142
1 0,
n 12 m
0.78
1.008665
1

Li, 0.18 s 6Li, 7.42%

p or
6.015121
5.01254
4
He,100% 5He,?
n,
4.0026
5.01222
3
H, 12.26y
0.0186
3.014102

10
Be, 0.06 9Be, 100%
Be,
fs
1.6x106 y
2 0.86 9.012182
0.5
8.005305
7
Li, 92.5% 8Li, 0.85 s
16
7.016003 8.022485
6
8
He 0.81s 7He
He, 1s
3.51
n, 14
6.018886
8.03392
Symbol, abundance or half-life,
(fs =1015s, second, minute, year)

Decay mode: , , energy MeV,

Mass in amu
2

Radioactive
Decays
Chart of some light
nuclides
with a key in the large square.

21

Isotopes Isotones, and Isobars

No. of
protons

Relationships of Isotopes
Isobars, and Isotones on
Chart of Nuclides

Isomers

I S O T O P E S
S S
O
O
a Nuclide
T
B
O
A
N
R
E
S
S

Recognize the locations of

isobars
isotones
isomers
Isotopes
on the chart of nuclides
helps you remember
meaning of these terms,
and interpret the
transformation of nuclides
in nuclear decays and
nuclear reactions.

No. of neutrons
Radioactive Decays

22

Families of Radioactive Decay Series

Radioactive Decay Series of 238U
U92

238

234
234

Th90 +

Th90

(t1/2 4.5e9 y)

234

Pa91 + + (t1/2 24.1 d)

Pa91

234

234

U92 + +

(t1/2

6.7 h)
234

U92 . . . (continue)

Only alpha decay changes the mass number by 4.

. . .
206

Pb82

There are 4 families of decay series.

4n, 4n+1, 4n+2, 4n+3,
n being an integer.
Radioactive Decays

23

Radioactivity - 238U radioactive decay series

The Decay Path of 4n + 2or 238U Family

238

234

234

Pa

234

230

Th

Th

226

Ra

222

Rn

218

At

210

Po

214

Po

210

206

Pb
206
Tl

Bi

Pb

Bi

Major route

214

210

Hg

Po

214

210

206

218

decay

Tl

Pb

Minor route
decay

Radioactive Decays

24

Radioactivity - 239Np radioactive decay series

The Decay Paths of the 4n + 1or 237Np93 Family Series
233

(1.6e5 y)

229
225

213
209

Bi83

209

Po84

Pb82

U92

237

Np93
(2e6 y)
233
Pa91

Th90
(7300 y; minor path)

Ac89
225
(10 d)
Ra88
221 87
Fr

217
At85
(1 min)
213 83
Bi

209

81

Tl

Radioactive Decays

25

Radioactivity - A Closer Look at Atomic Nuclei

Considering the atomic
nucleus being made up of
protons and neutrons
Proton
Key terms:

neutron

mass, (atomic weight)

atomic number Z
mass number A or M
proton, neutron
nucleon, baryon
(free nucleon)
Lepton (electron)
Radioactive Decays

26

Properties of Subatomic Particles

Properties of Baryons and Leptons
Baryons_____
Proton
Neutron
Rest
1.00727647 1.0086649
Mass
938.2723
939.5653
Charge* 1
0
Spin

Magnetic
moment* 2.7928474

_____Leptons______
Electron
Neutrino Units
5.485799e-4 <1010 amu
0.51899
<5x107 MeV
1
0
e

(h/2)

N -1.9130428 N 1.00115965B

Its a good idea to know the properties of these subatomic particles.

You need not memorize the exact value for rest mass and magnetic
moment, but compare them to get their relationship.
Radioactive Decays

27

Mass of Protons, Neutrons & Hydrogen Atom

Proton
Neutron
Electron
Neutrino Units
Rest 1.00727647 1.0086649
5.485799e-4
<1010
amu
Mass
938.2723
939.5653
0.51899
Mass of
protons, neutrons
and the H atom
<5x107 MeV
mn - mp = 1.0086649 - 1.00727647
= 0.0013884 amu (or 1.2927 MeV)
= 2.491 me
mH = (1.00727647 + 0.00054856) amu
= 1.007825 amu
Decay energy of neutrons
1.00866491.007825amu =0.000840amu(=
Radioactive Decays
0.783 MeV)

28

Magnetic Moment of Particles

A close-loop current in a uniform magnetic

field experiences a torque if the plane of the
loop is not perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Radioactive Decays

29

Nuclear Models
Each model has its own merit. Realize the concept of these models
and apply them to explain nuclear phenomena such as nuclear
decay and nuclear reactions.

Liquid drop model: strong force hold nucleons together as

liquid drop of nucleons (Bohr). Rnucleus = 1.2 A1/3.

Gas model: nucleons move about as gas molecules but strong

mutual attractions holds them together (Fermi).

Shell model: nucleons behave as waves occupying certain

energy states worked out by quantum mechanical methods.
Each shell holds some magic number of nucleons.
Magic numbers: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126. Nuclei with magic number
of protons or neutrons are very stable.
Radioactive Decays

30

The potential well of nucleons in a nucleus for the shell model

The concept of quantum theory will be elaborated during the lecture.

Radioactive Decays

31

Her former student (at Johns Hopkins), Robert Sachs,

brought her to Argonne at "a nice consulting salary".
(Sachs later became Argonne's director.) While there,
she learned recognized the "magic numbers. While
collecting data to support nuclear shells, she was at first
unable to marshal a theoretical explanation. During a
discussion of the problem with Enrico Fermi, he casually
asked: "Incidentally, is there any evidence of spin-orbit
coupling?" Goeppert Mayer was stunned. She recalled:
"When he said it, it all fell into place. In 10 minutes I
knew... I finished my computations that night. Fermi
taught it to his class the next week". Goeppert Mayer's
1948 (volunteer professor at Chicago at the time) theory
explained why some nuclei were more stable than
others and why some elements were rich in isotopes.
Radioactive Decays

Maria Goeppert-Mayer
(1906-1972), received
the 1963 Nobel Prize
in Physics for her
discovery of the magic
numbers and their
explanation in terms of
a nuclear shell model
with strong spin-orbit
coupling.
32

The shell model

Quantum mechanics treats nucleons in a nucleus as waves.
Each particle is represented by a wavefunction.
The wavefunctions are obtained by solving a differential equation.
Each wavefunction has a unique set of quantum numbers.
The energy of the state (function) depends on the quantum numbers.
Quantum numbers are:
n = any integer, the principle q.n.
l = 0, 1, 2, ..., n-1, the orbital quantum number
s = 1/2 or -1/2 the spin q.n.
J = vector sum of l and s
The wavefunction n,l is even or odd parity.
Radioactive Decays

33

The Shell Model

Mayer in 1948 marked the
beginning of a new era in the
appreciation of the shell model.

For the first time, Mayer

convinced us the
existence of the higher
magic numbers with
spin-orbit couplings.
Radioactive Decays

34

Energy Level Diagram of Nucleons

n

7
6
6
6
6
6

6
0
1
2
3
4

13

6
5
5
5
5

5
0
2
3
4

11

5
4
4
4

(2j+1)
Notation

/ 2+

3
/ 2
5
/ 2
7
/ 2
9
/ 2

Radioactivity &
the shell model

Shell
total

1i
3p
3p
2f
2f
1h

14
2
4
6
8
10

~126

/ 2
+
3
/ 2+
5
/ 2+
7
/ 2+

1h
3s
2d
2d
1g

12
2
4
6
8

~82

4
0
1
2

/ 2+

3
/ 2
5
/ 2

1g
2p
2p
1f

10
2
4
6

~50

/ 2

1f

~28

+ ___________ 6.54 MeV

3
3
3

0
1
2

+
/ 2+
5
/ 2+

2s
1d
1d

2
4
6

~20

0
1

/ 2

1p
1p

2
4

~8

1s

~2

Energy states of nuclei are

labelled using
J = j1 + j2 + j3 + j4 + ...
plus parity,
J+
Some Excited States of the 7Li
Nuclide

/2 + ___________ 4.64

___________ 0.478
3
/2 ___________ Ground State
Radioactive Decays

35

Presentation Speech by Professor I. Waller,

member of the Nobel Committee for Physics (1963)
The discoveries by Eugene Wigner, Maria Goeppert Mayer and Hans
Jensen for which this year's Nobel Prize in physics has been awarded,
concern the theory of the atomic nuclei and the elementary particles. They
are based on the highly successful atomic research of the first three
decades of this century which showed that an atom consists of a small
nucleus and a surrounding cloud of electrons which revolve around the
nucleus and thereby follow laws which had been formulated in the so-called
quantum mechanics. To the exploration of the atomic nuclei was given a
firm foundation in the early 1930's when it was found that the nuclei are built
up by protons and neutrons and that the motion of these so-called nucleons
is governed by the laws of quantum mechanics.

Radioactive Decays

36

Radioactive Decay Energy

The law of conservation of mass and energy covers all reactions.
Sum of mass before reaction = Sum of mass after reaction + Q
Q = Sum of mass before reaction - Sum of mass after reaction
Energy in Radioactive Decay
Before decay

Interesting Items:
Spectrum of particles
Energy in gamma decay
Energy in beta decay
Energy in alpha decay

Recoiling nucleus
Radioactive Decays

37

Gamma Decay Energy

Gamma, , rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted from atomic nuclei.
The bundles of energy emitted are called photons.
Excited nuclei are called
isomers, and de-excitation is
called isomeric transition (IT).
Energy for photons

Ei ____________

hv=Ei-Ef

Ef ____________

hv

Eothers _________
Radioactive Decays

38

Nature of Gamma Transitions

Types of Isomeric Transitions and their Ranges of Half-life
Radiation Type Symbol
life t (s)

Partial half

Electric dipole

E1

Yes

5.7e-15 E3 A

1
E2

No
2

2.2e-14 E3
No
6.7e-9 E5 A

M2

Yes

3
M3

Yes
3

1.2e-2 E7 A2
No
4.9e-2 E7 A

2/3

Magnetic dipole M1
Electric quadrupole
4/3

Magnetic quadrupole

2.6e-8 E5 A

2/3

Electric octupole E3
Magnetic octupole
4/3

Electric 24-pole

Radioactive Decays

No

39

3.4e4 E9 A8/3

Gamma Decay Energy and Spectrum

Gamma transition of 7Li
Various Gamma Transitions in 7Li
+ 6.54 MeV

M3
E3
M1

E1
M2

7/ 2+

4.64 MeV

0.778 MeV
3/ 2 ground state
Radioactive Decays

40

Gamma Decay Energy and Spectrum

Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18

Intensity

2h+
3.27 MeV
1.98 MeV

1.98

2+
0+

3.27 MeV
5.25 MeV

E
Radioactive Decays

41

Beta Decay Spectrum

A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensity
or # of
Internal conversion electrons

E max

Energy of
Radioactive Decays

42

Beta Decay
Spectra

A Typical Beta Spectrum

64

Cu
40%

41%EC 1+
2+
0+

0+

64
64

Ni

Zn

19%+

Intensity

Decay of 64Cu
illustrates several
interesting features
of beta decay and
stability of nuclides.

+
0.58 MeV
0.66 MeV

Radioactive Decays

E
43

Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino

A Beta Decay Scheme
P D
Z

Z+1

A Typical Beta Spectrum

+ + v

Intensity
or # of

?
E max

Energy of

Pauli: Neutrino with spin 1/2 is emitted simultaneously with beta,

carrying the missing energy.
Radioactive Decays

Correct notes

44

Positron Decay Energy

Positron Emission

Positron emission

P Z D Z1 + e + + + +
Edecay.
Edecay = MP - MD Radioactive
2 mDecays
e.

45

Beta Decay Energy and Half-life

A Sargent Diagram
Log (s1)
210

Pb

210Bi

212

Pb

214

Pb
208

Tl
234
Pa

228Ac
212Bi

The higher the decay

energy, the shorter
the half-life, but
there are other
factors.

214Bi
Log E (eV)
Radioactive Decays

46

Alpha Decay Energy & Spectrum

An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
No.
of

Po
particle energy:
98.9% 10.02 MeV
0.5% 9.45
0.5% 8.55
211

|
|

MeV

|
|

10

|
207
7

/2+

/2+

0.5%
0.5%

Pb

|
0.90 MeV

0.57 MeV
Radioactive Decays

47

Radioactive Decays
Main Topics (Summary)
Radioactive decay, decay kinetics, applications
Transmutation in , and decays
The atomic nuclei, properties of baryons, models for the nuclei
Radioactive decay energy

Radioactive Decays

48