Module 4

ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
Module 4
Introduction, definition, historical

development, fundamental principles of
OB, contributing disciplines, challenges and
opportunities.
1
Meaning of Organizational Behavior
1.
2.
3.
4.
Organizational behavior is the study of human behavior

in the workplace, the interaction between people and
the organization, and the organization itself.
An interdisciplinary behavioural science.
Studies phenomena and dynamics (processes) of
organisations.
Relates these processes to their various human units.
Human units: individuals, roles, teams, inter-teams,
organizations. and organization-environment interface.
Human units and interfaces with

behavioral sciences
Units
Interfaces
Related Science
Individual
Intra-person
Psychology
Role
Person-Role
Anthropology
Dynamics
Interpersonal
Sociology
Team
Interterm
Social Psychology
Organization
Org-Environment
Political Science
Psychology
Psychology: The science that seeks to measure , explain and
sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other animals.
Anthropology
Anthropology: The study of societies to learn about human
beings and their activities.
Sociology
Sociology : The study of people in relation to their fellow
human beings
Social Psychology
Social Psychology: An area within Psychology that blends
concepts from Psychology and sociology and that focuses on the
influence of people on one another.
Political Science
Political Science: The study of the behavior of individuals and
groups within a political environment
Brief History of OB
Classical approach to management
(scientific management and
administrative management)
Hawthorne studies (workers respond to
attention)
Human relations movement (treat
workers well to boost productivity)
9
Brief History of OB
The contingency approach (examine
individual and situational differences
before taking action)
Positive organizational behavior (focus
on measurable strengths of workers to
improve performance)
10
Fundamental principles
of OB
Every individual is different from other
individuals.
Whole person.
Behavior of an individual is caused.
An individual has dignity.
Organizations are social system (psychological
needs as well as social roles and status).
Mutuality of interest among Organizational
members.
Holistic Organizational Behavior.
11
Emerging Trends and Issues

Employees and customers: more informed, educated and
demanding
Globalization
Information Technology: communication, education, ebusiness
Outsourcing
Diversity: multiple and at all levels
Privacy: employee, consumer
High performance organization.
12
Challenges and Opportunities for OB
Responding to Globalization
Responding to Labour Shortage
Managing Workforce Diversity
Improving Quality and Productivity
Improving Customer Service
Improving People Skills
Empowering People
Stimulating Innovation and Change
Coping with Temporariness
Working in Networked Organizations

Helping Employees Balance Work-Life
Conflicts
Creating a Positive Work Environment
Improving Ethical Behavior
14
FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL
BEHAVIOR
Module 5
15
BEHAVIOR
Ability directly influences an employees level of
performance and satisfaction through the ability-job
fit.
Effective selection process will improve the fit.
Job analysis will provide information about jobs
currently being done and the abilities that individuals
need to perform the jobs adequately.
16
BEHAVIOR
Age
Gender
Status
Tenure
Intellectual Abilities
Physical Abilities
17
AGE
1.
2.
3.
4.
The relationship between age and job performance is

importance to understand the individual.
Job performance declines with increasing age.
Mandatory retirement.
Older workers bring to their jobs, specifically experience,
judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.
Older workers are also perceived as lacking flexibility and as
being resistant to new technology.
18
AGE
Age is also inversely related to absenteeism.
Older employees have lower rates of avoidable
absence. However, they have higher rates of
unavoidable absence, probably due to their poorer
health associated with aging and longer recovery
periods when injured.
19
AGE
Productivity declines with age.
1.
Reviews of the research find that age and job performance

are unrelated.
When professional and nonprofessional employees are
separated, satisfaction tends to continually increase among
professionals as they age, whereas it falls among
nonprofessionals during middle age
2.
20
GENDER
Difference between men and women.
Problem-solving
Analytical skills
Competitive drive
Motivation
Sociability
Learning ability
21
GENDER
Women are more willing to conform to authority,

and men are more aggressive and more likely than
women to have expectations of success.
There is no evidence indicating that an employees
gender affects job satisfaction.
Women are more likely to prefer part-time work,
flexible work schedules, and telecommuting in
order to accommodate their family responsibilities.
22
GENDER
Job quitting rates are similar to mens.
The research on absence consistently
indicates that women have higher rates of
absenteeism.
The logical explanation: cultural
expectation that has historically placed
home and family responsibilities on the
woman.
23
Marital Status
There are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about

the effect of marital status on job productivity.
Research consistently indicates that married employees have
fewer absences, undergo less turnover, and are more satisfied
with their jobs than are their unmarried coworkers.
Research in software industry indicate that divorce rate have
increased but link to job productivity is still in study.
24
Tenure
There is a positive relationship between tenure and
job productivity.
There is a negative relationship between tenure to
absence.
Tenure has been suggested as one of the single best
predictors of turnover.
The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are
positively related.
25
ABILITY
Everyone has strengths and weaknesses in terms of ability in

performing certain tasks or activities; the issue is knowing how
people differ in abilities and using that knowledge to increase
performance.
Ability refers to an individuals capacity to perform the various
tasks in a job. It is a current assessment of what one can do.
Individuals overall abilities are made up of three sets of
factors: intellectual physical and emotional.
26
INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES
Intellectual abilities are those needed to perform

mental activities.
IQ tests are designed to ascertain ones general
intellectual abilities. Examples of such tests are
popular college admission tests such as the GMAT
The most frequently cited dimensions making up
intellectual abilities are: number aptitude, verbal
comprehension, speed, reasoning, visualization, and
memory.
27
INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES
Jobs differ in the demands they place on incumbents to use

their intellectual abilities.
For example, the more information-processing demands that

exist in a job, the more general intelligence and verbal abilities
will be necessary to perform the job successfully.
A careful review of the evidence demonstrates that tests

that assess verbal, numerical, spatial, and perceptual
abilities are valid predictors of job proficiency at all levels
of jobs.
New research in this area focuses on Multiple
intelligences,
28
Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Dimensions
Description
Job Example
Number Aptitude
Ability to do speedy
and accurate arithmetic
Accountant: Computing
the sales tax on a set of
items
Verbal Comprehension
Ability to understand
what is read or heard
and the relationship of
words to each other
Plant manager:
Following corporate
policies on hiring
Speed
Ability to identify
visual similarities and
differences quickly and
accurately
Fire investigator:
identifying clues to
support a charge
29
Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Dimensions
Description
Job Example
Inductive
Reasoning
Ability to identify a logical

sequence in a problem and then
solve the problem
Market researcher:
forecasting demand for
product
Deductive
Ability to use logic and asses

the implication of an argument
Supervisor: choosing
between two different
suggestion offered by
employees
Visualization
Ability to imagine how an

object would look if its position
in space were changed
Interior decorator
Memory
Ability to retain and recall past

experiences
Salesperson: remembering
the names of customers
reasoning
30
PHYSICAL ABILITIES
Specific physical abilities gain importance in doing less

skilled and more standardized jobs.
Research has identified nine basic abilities involved in the
performance of physical tasks.
Individuals differ in the extent to which they have each of
these abilities.
High employee performance is likely to be achieved when
management matches the extent to which a job requires
each of the nine abilities and the employees abilities.
31
NINE BASIC PHYSICAL ABILITIES

Strength factors
Ability
Dynamic strength
Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly over time.
Trunk strength
Ability to exert muscular force using the trunk
Static strength
Ability to exert force against external objects
Extent flexibility
Ability to move the trunk and back as far as possible
Dynamic
flexibility
Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movement
Body coordination
Ability to coordinate the simultaneous action of different parts

of the body
Balance
Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off

balance
Stamina
Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort

over time.
32
Emotional Intelligence is knowing and controlling self and knowing and controlling others
A.
B.
.
.
.
.
.
Men
Achievement
Motive
Urge to excel and
complete
Sensing opportunity
Taking responsibility
Low fear of failure
Persistence,
perseverance
Power Motive
Urge to control and
impact
Positive self-image
Energy, discontent
Assertiveness
Self-reliance,
independence
Women
C. Extension Motive
Urge to help and care
Compassion
Empathy, synchrony
Trust
Collaborations, synergy
D. Self-determination
Intuition
Value-orientation
(authenticity, integrity)
Management of emotions
Resilience
Goal-involvement (selfrestraint)
Common
E. Self- Determination
Self-awareness
Internality
Optimism
Flow (lack of
rumination)
F.Social Competence
Reflection
Ambiguity tolerance
Commitment
Management of
others emotions
Networking
33
THE ABILITY-JOB FIT
Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high

ability-job fit.
The specific intellectual or physical abilities required depend
on the ability requirements of the job. For example, pilots
need strong spatial-visualization abilities.
Employee has abilities that far exceed the requirements of
the job, performance is likely to be adequate, but there will
be possible declines in employee satisfaction.
34
Personality
35
Personality
The term personality is used in several sense. When people
say he has a good personality they probably refer to the
persons physical appearance.
When someone says that Mr. X should have a more dynamic
personality , what is meant is the desired behaviour of X and
so on.
Psychologist have attempted to describe personality in terms
of standard traits.
36
Personality
Personality is a relatively stable set of
characteristics that influences an individual's
behavior. Family influences, cultural influences,
educational influences, and environmental forces
all shape personality.
37
Why individuals differ in terms of

personality
The basis for understanding individual differences is given by
Lewin's in early- 1960.
He stated that behaviour is a function of the person and the
environment. B = f (P,E)
Behaviour is a function of a continuous , multidirectional
interaction between the person and the situation.
The person is active in this process.
Environment factors are those which influence the person that
is organization, work group, job and personal life.
38
Why individuals differ in terms of

personality
The person
Skills and abilities
Attitudes
Values
The
environment
Organization
Work group
Job
Personal life
Behavior
39
Personality Characteristics in Organizations
Hundreds of personality characteristics have

been identified that are relevant to personality.
Some characteristics with interesting

implications in organizations are locus of
control, self-esteem, self-efficacy, selfmonitoring etc.
40
Personality Characteristics in Organizations

Locus of Control.
Locus of control was suggested by Rotter in 1960

The extent to which a person feels able to control
his/her own life.

Externals.
More extraverted in their interpersonal relationships

and more oriented toward the world around them.
Internals.
More introverted and more oriented towards their own
feelings and ideas.
41
Locus of Control.
42
Authoritarianism/dogmatism.
Authoritarianism.
Tendency
to adhere rigidly to conventional
values and to obey recognized authority.

Dogmatism.
Tendency to view the world as a threatening
place.
43
Machiavellianism
Named after Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote
in the sixteenth century on how to gain and use
power.
44
An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic,

maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can
justify means.
High Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less, and
persuade others more.
High Mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors and
flourish when they interact face to face with others, rather than
indirectly, and when the situation has a minimum number of
rules and regulations, thus allowing latitude for improvisation.
High Machs make good employees in jobs that require
bargaining skills or that offer substantial rewards for winning.
45
People with a low-Machiavellian personality:

Accept direction imposed by others in loosely
structured situations.
Work hard to do well in highly structured
situations.
Are strongly guided by ethical considerations.
Are unlikely to lie or cheat.
46
Self-esteem
Self-esteemthe degree to which people like or dislike themselves.
(SE) is directly related to expectations for success.
Individuals with high self-esteem will take more risks in job
selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs than
people with low self-esteem.
The most generalizable finding is that low SEs are more susceptible
to external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent on
the receipt of positive evaluations from others.
In managerial positions, low SEs will tend to be concerned with
pleasing others.
High SEs are more satisfied with their jobs than are low SEs.
47
Self-monitoring
It refers to an individuals ability to adjust his or her
behavior to external, situational factors.
Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable
adaptability. They are highly sensitive to external cues, can
behave differently in different situations, and are capable of
presenting striking contradictions between their public
persona and their private self.
Low self-monitors cannot disguise themselves in that way.
They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in
every situation resulting in a high behavioral consistency
between who they are and what they do.
48
Self-monitoring
High self-monitors tend to pay closer attention to
the behavior of others.
High self-monitoring managers tend to be more
mobile in their careers and receive more
promotions.
High self-monitor is capable of putting on
different faces for different audiences.
49
Risk taking
The propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to
have an impact on how long it takes managers to make a
decision and how much information they require before
making their choice.
High risk-taking managers made more rapid decisions
and used less information in making their choices.
While managers in organizations are generally riskaversive, there are still individual differences on this
dimension. As a result, it makes sense to recognize these
differences and even to consider aligning risk-taking
propensity with specific job demands.
50
Type A
A Type A personality is aggressively involved in a
chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in
less and less time, and, if required to do so, against the
opposing efforts of other things or other persons.
They are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly, are
impatient with the rate at which most events take place,
are doing do two or more things at once and cannot cope
with leisure time. They are obsessed with numbers,
measuring their success in terms of how many or how
much of everything they acquire.
51
Type B
Type B never suffer from a sense of time
urgency with its accompanying impatience and
feel no need to display or discuss either their
achievements or accomplishments unless such
exposure is demanded by the situation.
Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to
exhibit their superiority at any cost and can
relax without guilt.
52
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to a belief about ones own
ability to deal with events and challenges.
High self-efficacy results in greater confidence
in ones job-related abilities to function
effectively on the job. Success in previous
situations leads to increased self-efficacy for
present and future challenges.
53
Measurement of personality in the organizations
Big five model

Sixteen personality factors
The Myers-Briggs type indicator
54
Big five model

The Big Five were originally derived in the 1970's by two
independent research teams -- Paul Costa and Robert
McCrae (at the National Institutes of Health), and Warren
Norman (at the University of Michigan)/Lewis Goldberg
(at the University of Oregon)
Who took slightly different routes at arriving at the same
results: most human personality traits can be boiled down
to five broad dimensions of personality, regardless of
language ,culture, occupation etc
55
Big five model

Extraversion. Comfort level with relationships. Extraverts
tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend
to be reserved, timid, and quiet.
Agreeableness. Individuals propensity to defer to others.
High agreeableness peoplecooperative, warm, and trusting.
Low agreeableness peoplecold, disagreeable.
Conscientiousness. A measure of reliability. A high
conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable,
and persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are
easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable.
56
Big five model

Emotional stability. A persons ability to withstand stress.
People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm,
self-confident, and secure. Those with high negative
scores tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and
insecure.
Openness to experience. The range of interests and
fascination with novelty. Extremely open people are
creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the
other end of the openness category are conventional and
find comfort in the familiar.
57
Sixteen personality factors (16 PF)

Authors: Raymond B. Cattell, A. Karen Cattell
The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) is a
self-report questionnaire which provides detailed
information on 16 primary personality traits.
It
emphasizes
an
individual's
strengths
through
measurement of such personality dimensions as warmth,
intelligence, sensitivity, and self-discipline.
The 16PF assessment is also a reliable predictor of
normal personality and helps project an individual's
fitness for a variety of occupations.
58
Sixteen personality factors (16 PF)
59
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Developed by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel
Briggs Myers.
Present version has evolved after 50 years of research;
Has been translated into more than 30 languages;
Is the most widely used personality inventory in the world.
60
It is a 100-question personality test that asks

people how they usually feel or act in
particular situations.
Respondents are classified as extraverted or
introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or
N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and judging or
perceiving (J or P).
61
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Focus
Decision Making
Information Preference
Lead Life
62
The MBTI is used in :
Self-development;
Career development and exploration;
Relationship counseling;
Academic counseling;
Organization development;
Team building;
Problem solving;
Management and leadership training;
Education and curriculum development;
Diversity and multicultural training.
63
Attitudes
Attitudes has a function of beliefs.
Beliefs is an association between two cognitive elements. For
example: we have a belief that persons of a certain region behave
aggressively with others.
Beliefs may be formed through direct behaviour and experience.
Attitude scale can be prepared by combining statements of beliefs.
Attitude is a psychological tendency expressed when we evaluate a
particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavor.
Attitudes are evaluative statements, either favorable or unfavorable
about objects, people, or events.
64
Formation of Attitude
Direct Experience: Direct experience
with something strongly influences
attitude towards it.
Attitudes derived from direct experience are
stronger, held more confidently and more
resistant to change than attitudes formed
through indirect experience.
65
Formation of Attitude
Social Learning: The family, peer groups,
religious organizations and culture shape an
individuals attitudes indirectly.
Children adopt certain attitudes when their parents

reinforce attitudes they approve.
Substantial social learning occurs through modeling in
which individuals acquire attitudes by observing others.
According to social learning theory, people engage in
crime because of their association with others who
engage in crime.
66
Main Components of
Attitudes
Cognitive component a description or belief in the
way things are.
My pay is low
Affective component- Affects the emotional or feeling

segment of an attitude and is reflected in the statement
I am angry over how little Im paid.
Behavioral component describes an intention to

behave in a certain way toward someone or something.
Im going to look for another job that pays better.
67
Components of an
Attitude
Cognitive = evaluation
My supervisor gave a promotion
to a coworker who deserved it
less than me. My supervisor is unfair.
Affective = feeling
I dislike my supervisor!
Negative
attitude
toward
supervisor
Behavioral = action
Im looking for other work; Ive
complained about my supervisor
to anyone who would listen.
68
Work attitudes
In relation to organization , the general

meaning of attitude is applied to work. Work
attitudes are reflected in
1. Job satisfaction
2. Job involvement
3. Organizational commitment
69
Work attitudes
Job satisfaction: refers to the degree of pleasure an

employee derives from his or her job.
Jobs require interaction with co-workers and bosses,
following organizational rules and policies, meeting
performance standards, living with working conditions
that are often less than ideal, and the like.
This means that an employees assessment of how
satisfied or dissatisfied he or she is with his/her job is a
complex summation of a number of discrete job elements.
70
Measuring Job Satisfaction :Minnesota Satisfaction

Questionnaire
Think of the work you do at present. How
well
does each of the following words or phrases
describe your job? In the blank beside each
word or phrase: below, write:
Y for "Yes" if it describes your work
N for "No" if it does NOT describe it
? for "?" if you can not decide
WORK ON PRESENT JOB
_______Fascinating
_______Boring
_______Can see results
PRESENT PAY
_______Fair
_______Well-paid
_______Bad
OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROMOTION
_______Good opportunities for promotion
_______Promotion on ability
SUPERVISION
_______Knows job well
_______Doesnt supervise enough
_______Around when needed
COWORKERS
_______Stimulating
_______Unpleasant
_______Smart
JOB IN GENERAL
_______Pleasant
_______Worse than most
_______Worthwhile
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
_______Infrequent promotions
71
How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs?
Most people are satisfied with their jobs in the developed

countries.
Factors that decline job satisfaction in developing economics
are :- Increased productivity through heavier employee
workloads and tighter deadlines.
- Employees feeling they have less control over their
work.
While some segments of the markets in a developing
economy are more satisfied than others.
72
The Effect of Job Satisfaction

Job
Satisfaction
Productivity
Absenteeism
Job Turnover
73
Job Satisfaction and productivity

Happy workers are not necessarily productive
workersthe
evidence
suggests
that
productivity is likely to lead to satisfaction.
Organizations with more satisfied workers as a
whole are more productive organizations.
74
Job satisfaction and absenteeism

There is negative relationship between satisfaction and
absenteeism. The more satisfied you are, the less likely
you are to miss work.
It makes sense that dissatisfied employees are more likely
to miss work, but other factors have an impact on the
relationship and reduce the correlation coefficient.
For example, you might be a satisfied worker, yet still
take a Medical leave to head for the friends house.
75
Job Satisfaction and turnover

Satisfaction is also negatively related to
turnover, but the correlation is stronger than
what we found for absenteeism.
Factors such as labour market conditions,
alternative job opportunities are few of the key
factors for job turnover.
Important
factors that indicates the
satisfaction-turnover relationship is the
employees level of performance.
76
Employees behaviour to express job dissatisfaction

Exit: Behavior directed toward
leaving the organization,
including looking for a new
position as well as resigning.
Voice: Actively and constructively

attempting to improve conditions,
including suggesting
improvements, discussing
problems with superiors, and some
forms of union activity.
Loyalty: Passively but optimistically

waiting for conditions to improve,
including speaking up for the
organization in the face of external
criticism, and trusting the organization
and its management to do the right
thing.
Neglect: Passively allowing

conditions to worsen, including
chronic absenteeism or lateness,
reduced effort, and increased error
rate.
77
Job involvement
The measure of the degree to which a person
identifies psychologically with his/her job and
considers his/her perceived performance level
important to self-worth.
High levels of job involvement is thought to
result in fewer absences and lower resignation
rates.
Job involvement more consistently predicts
turnover than absenteeism.
78
Organizational Commitment
It indicates a persons feelings with regards to continuing his or
her association with the organization, acceptance of the values
and goals of the organization, and willingness to help the
organization achieve such goals and values.
Meyer and Allen( 1991) have suggested three dimensions of
organizational commitment.
1. Affective
2. Continuous commitment.
3. Willingness.
79
Three dimensions of Organizational Commitment

Affective commitment: The persons emotional attachment to
and identification with the organization.
Continuous commitment: based on the benefits the person sees
in continuing with organization.
Willingness: The willingness of the person to continue with
the organization because it is commonly considered a good
thing to stay on.
This model has been tested and has been found to be
applicable to non western cultures.
80
Application of Attitudes in organizational settings

Commercial banks in India undertook an attitude survey of
employees towards new technology such as computers.
Attitude surveys conducted to study with regards to structural
change like centralization to decentralization.
Attitude survey at the time of merger and acquisition of the
company.
Attitude survey of the consumer towards the new product.
Attitude survey of the employees towards the new policy to be
implemented in the organization.
Attitude survey by the government before implementing any
policy.
81
Attitudes and Consistency
Individuals seek to reconcile divergent attitudes

and align their attitudes and behavior so they
appear rational and consistent.
When there is an inconsistency, forces are
initiated to return the individual to an
equilibrium state where attitudes and behavior
are again consistent, by altering either the
attitudes or the behavior, or by developing a
rationalization for the discrepancy.
82
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Leon, in the late 1950s, proposed the theory of cognitive

dissonance, seeking to explain the linkage between attitudes and
behavior.
He argued that any form of inconsistency is
uncomfortable and that individuals will attempt to reduce the

dissonance.
Dissonance means an inconsistency.
Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that an

individual might perceive between two or more of his/her
attitudes, or between his/her behavior and attitudes.
No individual can completely avoid dissonance.
83
Ways to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance
Avoidance
Denial
Change
Jones is unhappy that women are

now assigned to his unit because
he feels that females cannot
handle stressful emergency
situations. Then during a situation
one female functions well during
an emergency.
1. Jones experiences cognitive
dissonance.
2. How does Jones reduce this?
84
Cognitive Dissonance process of Jones
Avoidance- Jones delegates responsibilities so

he doesnt have to come in contact with
females, or asks for a transfer.
Denial- Jones passes this off as an exception to
the rule.
Change- Jones thought females could not
perform under stress, but he was wrong.
85
Perception
86
What is the perception

Perception.
The process by which people select, organize,
interpret, retrieve, and respond to information.

People process information inputs into responses
involving feeling and action.
The quality or accuracy of a persons perceptions
has a major impact on responses.
87
What do you see in the black and

white graphic?
How many legs?
The rows of black and white

squares are all parallel
Impossible triangle
The center circles are both the

same size
The pillars are identical in

size
The Vertical lines are both the

same length
The shade of the center dot is

the same in all the squares
There are only white circles at

the intersections
Wavy Squares? No!
Deformed Circles
Factors that Influence

Perception
99
What is the perception process
100

The perceiver:
A persons past experiences needs or motives,
personality and values and attitudes may all influence
the perceptual process.
A person with a strong achievement need tends to
perceive a situation in terms of that need.
These and other perceiver factor influence the various
aspects of the perceptual process.
101

The setting:
The physical , social and organizational context of the
perceptual setting also can influence the perceptual
process.
The Perceived:
Characteristics of the perceived person , object or
event such as contrast, intensity, size, motion are
important in the perceptual process.
102
Perception process
Receiving
receipt of stimuli or data from various sources like
vision, hearing, smell, touch and taste (sensory
organs).
Selection
Selection of data
External Factors: These factors influencing the
selection of data are location, intensity, size,
contrast, repetition, motion etc.
Internal Factors: -These factors influencing the
selection of data are learning, age difference,
psychological needs, interest etc.
103
Organizing
the aspect of forming bit of information into
meaningful wholes is called organizing.
Figure ground
Perceptual Grouping
Similarity, proximity, closure and continuity
Perceptual Constancy
104
Interpreting: the perceiver interprets or

assigns meaning to the information.
Interpretation of stimuli (data) is affected by the
characteristics of the situation, perceiver and
the target itself.
Checking: perceiver checks whether his
interpretations are right or wrong.
Reacting: The perceiver may take some action
in relation to his perception. The action of a
perceiver depends upon the perception whether
it is favorable or unfavorable.
105
What are common perceptual distortions
106
Stereotypes or prototypes.
Combines information based on the category or
class to which a person, situation, or object

belongs.
Strong impact at the organization stage.
107
Halo effects.
Occur when one attribute of a person or situation is
used to develop an overall impression of the

individual or situation.
Important in the performance appraisal process.
108

Selective perception.
The tendency to single out those aspects of a
situation, person, or object that are consistent with

ones needs, values, or attitudes.
Strongest impact is at the attention stage.
Perception checking with other persons can help
counter the adverse impact of selective perception.
109
Projection.
The assignment of ones personal attributes to
other individuals.
Especially likely to occur in interpretation stage.
Projection can be controlled through a high degree
of self-awareness and empathy.
110
Self-fulfilling prophecy.
The tendency to create or find in another situation
or individual that which one expected to find.

Can have either positive or negative outcomes.
Managers should adopt positive and optimistic
approaches to people at work.
111
How can perceptions be managed

Impression management.
A persons systematic attempt to behave in ways
that create and maintain desired impressions in

others eyes.
Successful managers:
Use impression management to enhance their own
images.
Are sensitive to other peoples use of impression
management.
112
How can perceptions be managed

Distortion management.
Managers should:
Balance
automatic
and
controlled
information
processing at the attention and selection stage.

Broaden their schemas at the organizing stage.
Be attuned to attributions at the interpretation stage.
113
MOTIVATION
Module 7
114
Motivation
The process that account for an individuals intensity,direction and persistence

of effort towards attaining a goal.
Motivation represents the forces acting on or within a person that cause the
person to behave in a specific ,goal directed manner
Motivation is the set of forces that lead people to behave in particular ways
Motivation is a process that starts with physiological need that activates a

behaviour that is aimed at a goal or incentive
115
MOTIVATION
Work motives of employees affect their productivity
Management job is to channel employee motivation effectively
towards achieving organization goals
Motivating people who come form widely different background
Manager must be able to identify and understand employee
motives and satisfy their needs through organization
116
CORE PHASES OF THE MOTIVATION
A key motivational principle states that performance is based on a persons

level of ability and motivation
Performance = f ( ability and motivation )
Ability is the persons talent for performing goal related tasks
117
EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Hierarchy of needs theory
118

119

Physiological needs : Includes hunger thirst,shelter et
Safety needs: Includes security and protection from physical and emotional
harm
Social needs: Includes affection ,belongingness acceptance and friendship
Esteem needs: Includes internal factors such as self respect, achievement ,
status
Self actualization needs : The drive to become what one is capable of
becoming which include growth,self fulfillment
120
Douglas McGregor Theory ( Theory X and Theory Y )
Theory X
Employees dislike work and attempt to avoid it.
Employees will avoid responsibility and seek formal direction

whenever possible
workers place job security above all other factors
They are controlled through punishment to achieve goals

Theory Y
Employees can view work as being natural as rest or play
People will exercise self direction and self control
People learn to accept and seek responsibility
They make innovative decisions
121
TWO FACTOR THEORY
It is also called as motivation hygiene theory
He asked the subject to think of a time when they felt good and when
they felt bad about their jobs
There are two factors they are motivation factor and hygiene factors
Motivation factor
They are intrinsic to the work itself and include factor such as
achievement and recognition
Hygiene factor
They are extrinsic to the work itself and include like pay and
job security
122
TWO FACTOR THEORY
123
E R G Theory
There are three groups of core needs ,

- E= Existence
- R= Relatedness
- G= Growth
Existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence

requirement.
Relatedness include desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal

relationship
Growth need state desire for personal development.
124
E R G Theory demonstrates
More than one need may be operative at the same time
If the gratification of a higher need is not satisfied the desire to

satisfy lower level need increases
It does not assume that there exists a rigid hierarchy in which a

lower order need must be substantially gratified before one move
on
This theory is more consistent with our knowledge of individual

differences among people variable such as education,family
background and cultural
125
MCCLELLANDS THEORY OF NEEDS
126
Achievement motivation
An individual with this drive wishes to achieve objective and advance up the
ladder of success. Accomplishment is seen as important primarily for its own
sake not just for the rewards that accompany it.
Affiliation motivation
Affiliation motives work better when they are complimented for their
favorable attitudes and cooperation. They tend to select friends and they want
the job freedom to develop those relationship.
Power motivation
They wish to create an impact on their organization and are willing to take
risk to do so. Once this power is obtained it may be used either constructively
or destructively.
127
Cognitive evaluation theory

Allocating extrinsic rewards for behaviour that had been previously
intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.
Historically motivation theorists have generally assumed that intrinsic such as

achievement, responsibility are independent of extrinsic motivators such as
pay ,promotion etc.
This theory rewards which are used by organization as payoffs for superior
performance the intrinsic rewards which are derived from individuals doing
what they like are reduced .
128
EXPECTANCY THEORY
129
Effort performance relationship :

The probability perceived by the individuals that exerting a given
amount of effort will lead to performance.
It is an expression of the amount of ones desire to reach a goal.

For example if an employee strongly wants a promotion,then
promotion has high effort for that employee.
Manager need to gather specific information about an individual

employees preferences among a set of rewards and then continue to
monitor changes in those preferences.
130
Performance
The strength of belief that ones work related effort will

result in completion of a task.
Employees estimate of the degree to which performance will be determined by the

amount of effort expended
If an employee sees no chance that effort will lead to the desired performance ,the
expectancy is low
High self efficacy creates a high expectancy assessment
Few employee may suffer from Imposter Phenomenon

The employee that capable as they appear to be and consequently fear that their
incompetence will be revealed to others.
131
Rewards
It represents the employees belief that a reward will be received once the task is
accomplished.
Here the employee make another subjective judgment about the probability that the
organization values the employees performance and will administer rewards on a
contingent basis
For example : If an employee sees that promotions are usually based on

performance data ,rewards will be rated high by the employee
132
EQUITY THEORY
133
Inputs
It include all the rich and drives elements that employees believe they
bring or contribute to the job- their education,prior work experience, job
performance
Outcomes
They are the rewards they receive they get from their jobs and
employers .They include bonuses, job security,social rewards.
134
Employees analyze the fairness of their outcome/input and then compare their contract with
contracts of other workers in similar jobs and even with those outside of their job
Workers who feel under rewarded seek to reduce their feelings of inequity through the
some type of strategies .They might lower the quantity or quality of productivity
135
MOTIVATION IN PRACTICE
Job enlargement - means increasing the scope of the job. Could be increasing the
workload (job loading) more of the same or giving people more responsibility (job
enrichment).
Job enrichment - increasing the amount of responsibilities workers have. Giving
workers a range of responsibilities and tasks, a complete unit of work,
responsibility for quality and self-checking and opportunity to show their
responsibility.
136
Job rotation - proving a range of activities to decrease the boredom.

Team working - the attempt to maximize worker satisfaction by organizing employees into teams.
Characteristics of teams might include multi-skilling, self-checking, autonomous worker
groups (Kaizen, quality). The underlying theory behind team working might be attributed to
Mayo, because of his work on the importance of group norms, or Maslow.
Empowerment - gives workers the authority to carry out the task, how the want to carry that task
out and what the task should be. By empowering workers they are given more control over
their working lives and greater responsibility. This method involves delegating power away, it
is therefore not such a good idea if control is important
137
Group
Behaviour
Module
8
138
What is the nature of groups in

organizations?
A group is a collection of two or more people
who work with one another regularly to

achieve common goals.
In a true group, members are mutually
dependent on one another and interact with
one another.
Hot groups thrive in conditions of crisis and
competition.
139

organizations?
Effective groups achieve high levels of:
Task performance.
Members attain performance goals regarding
quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results.

Members satisfaction.
Members believe that their participation and
experiences are positive and meet important
personal needs.
Team viability.
Members are sufficiently satisfied to continue
working together on an ongoing basis.
140

organizations?
How groups help organizations
Groups are good for people.
Groups can improve creativity.
Groups can make better decisions.
Groups can increase commitments to
action.
Groups help control their members.
Groups help offset large organization
size.
141

organizations?
Situations in which groups are
superior to individuals.
When there is no clear expert in a
particular problem or task.

When problem solving can be handled
by a division of labor and the sharing of
information.
When creativity and innovation are
needed.
142

organizations?
Potential benefits for group members.
People learn from each other and share job skills
and knowledge.
Groups are important sources of need satisfaction
for their members.
Members can provide emotional support for each
other in times of crisis or pressure.
Members contributions can help them experience
self-esteem and personal involvement.
143

organizations?
Social loafing.
The tendency of people to work less
hard in a group than they would
individually.
Reasons for social loafing.
Individual contributions are less noticeable
in the group context.
Some individuals prefer to see others carry
the workload.
144

organizations?
Ways of preventing social loafing.
Define member roles and tasks to
maximize individual interests.

Raise accountability by identifying
individuals performance
contributions to the group.
Link individual rewards to
performance contributions to the

group.
145

organizations?
Social facilitation.
The tendency for a persons behavior
to be influenced by the presence of

others.
Positively affects performance when
a person is proficient on the task.
Negatively affects task performance
when the task is not well-learned.
146

organizations?
Formal groups.
Officially designated to serve a
specific organizational purpose.
The head of a formal group is
responsible for the groups
performance and serves a linkingpin role.
May be permanent or temporary.
Permanent work groups are
command groups.
Temporary work groups are task
147
groups.

organizations?
Types of formal groups.
Cross-functional teams or task forces.
Engage in special problem-solving
efforts drawing on input of the functional

areas.
Project teams.
Formed to complete a specific task with
a well-defined end point.
Virtual group.
Members work together via computers.
148

organizations?
Informal groups.
Emerge without being officially
designated by the organization.

Types of informal groups.
Friendship groups.
Interest groups.
149

organizations?
Effects of informal groups.
Can help people get their jobs done.
Can speed up workflow by
supplementing formal lines of

authority.
Can satisfy needs that are thwarted
or unmet by the formal group.

Can provide members with social
satisfaction, security, and a sense of

150
belonging.
What are the stages of group

development?
151

development?
Forming stage.
Initial entry of members to a group.
Member challenges.
Getting to know each other.
Discovering what is considered
acceptable behavior.
Determining the groups real task.
Defining group rules.
152

development?
Storming stage.
A period of high emotionality and tension among
group members.
Member challenges.
Hostility and infighting.
Formation of coalitions and cliques.
Clarification of members expectations.
Giving attention to obstacles to group goals.
Understanding one anothers interpersonal
styles.
Finding ways to accomplish group goals while
satisfying individual needs.
153

development?
Norming stage.
The point at which the group really
begins to come together as a
coordinated unit.
Member challenges.
Holding group together by maintaining a
positive balance.
Letting the desire for group harmony
obscure group problems.
Being mistaken about reaching ultimate
maturity .
154

development?
Performing stage.
Marks the emergence of a mature,
organized, and well-functioning
group.
Member challenges.
Meeting complex tasks and conflicts in
creative ways.
Being motivated by group goals and
achieving satisfaction.
Continuing to improve relationships and
performance.
Adapting to changing opportunities and
demands.
155

development?
Adjourning stage.
A well-integrated group is:
Able to disband when its work is finished.
Willing to work together in the future.
Particularly important for temporary
groups.
156
Group Behavior Model
157
External Conditions Imposed on

the Group
Imposed
ImposedConditions:
Conditions:
Organizations
Organizationsoverall
overallstrategy
strategy
Authority
Authoritystructures
structures
Formal
Formalregulations
regulations
Resource
Resourceconstraints
constraints
Selection
Selectionprocess
process
Performance
Performanceand
andevaluation
evaluationsystem
system
Organizations
Organizationsculture
culture
Physical
Physicalwork
worksetting
setting
158
Group Member Resources

Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities
Interpersonal skills
Conflict management and resolution
Collaborative problem solving
Communication
Personality Characteristics
Sociability
Initiative
Openness
Flexibility
159
Group Structure - Roles

Formal Leadership
Leadership that is imposed on the group by the
organization.
Leaders who derive their power from the
positions they occupy in the organizational
structure.
Formal leaders may or may not also be the
informal leaders of the groups in which they
function.
160
161
162
Group Structure - Norms
Classes
ClassesofofNorms:
Norms:
Performance
Performancenorms
norms
Appearance
Appearancenorms
norms
Social
Socialarrangement
arrangement
norms
norms
Allocation
Allocationofofresources
resources
norms
norms
163
Group Structure - Norms
164
Group Structure - Status
Group
GroupNorms
Norms
Status
StatusEquity
Equity
Group
GroupMember
Member
Status
Status
Culture
Culture
165
Group Structure - Size
Ex
p
ec
te
Performance
t
Ac
to
e
du
(
l
a
u
a
lo
g)
n
fi
Group Size
Other
Otherconclusions:
conclusions:
Odd
Oddnumber
numbergroups
groupsdo
do
better
than
even.
better than even.
Groups
Groupsofof77or
or99perform
perform
better
betteroverall
overallthan
thanlarger
largeror
or
smaller
groups.
smaller groups.
166
Group Structure - Composition

Group Demography :
The degree to which members of
a group share a common
demographic attribute such as age
, gender, educational level ,
length of service in the
organization and the impact of
this attribute on turnover.
167
Group Structure Cohesiveness
Increasing
Increasinggroup
groupcohesiveness:
cohesiveness:
1.1. Make
Makethe
thegroup
groupsmaller.
smaller.
2.2. Encourage
agreement
with
Encourage
agreement
with
group
goals.
group goals.
3.3. Increase
time
members
spend
Increase
time
members
spend
together.
together.
4.4. Increase
group
status
and
Increase
group
status
and
admission
difficultly.
admission difficultly.
5.5. Stimulate
competition
with
other
Stimulate
competition
with
other
groups.
groups.
6.6. Give
rewards
totothe
group,
not
Give
rewards
the
group,
not
individuals.
individuals.
7.7. Physically
Physicallyisolate
isolatethe
thegroup.
group.
168
STRENGTHS OF COHESIVE GROUPS
Increased expression of feelings.

Increases listening
Increased interpersonal influence
Increased feelings of self-confidence and self-esteem
Buffer against stress and thus may positively contribute to individual
mental and physical health.
Members of cohesive groups less often report feeling lonely or isolated.
Identity with the group is stronger
Perseverance toward goals
Increased willingness to take responsibility for group functioning
169
WEAKNESESS OF COHESIVE GROUPS

Generally discourage interaction between the team and its
outside environment
Tend toward surface or superficial harmony
Deviants tend to become isolates and possibly even
scapegoats
As imposed group homogeneity emerges, the group
closes itself off from cross-fertilization of ideas or from
corrective input.
170
Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness, Performance Norms,

and Productivity
171
Group Processes
172
Group Tasks
Decision-making
Large groups facilitate the pooling of information
about complex tasks.
Smaller groups are better suited to coordinating
and facilitating the implementation of complex
tasks.
Simple, routine standardized tasks reduce the
requirement that group processes be effective in
order for the group to perform well.
173
Group Decision Making
174
Team
Building
Module
9
175
Team
176
Types of Teams
177
Difference between work groups and teams

Work groups
Teams
Purpose
Same as organization
Specific
Work products
Individual
Collective
Process
Discuss, decide , delegate
Discuss , decide , do
Leadership
A single leader
Shared
Meetings
Efficient
Open, problem solving
Accountability
Individual
Individual and mutual
Evaluation
Financial outcomes
Collective outcome of
the team
178
Team development
Stage
Theme
Task outcomes
Relationship
outcomes
One
Awareness
Commitment
Acceptance
Two
Conflict
Clarification
Belonging
Three
Cooperation
Involvement
Support
Four
Productivity
Achievement
Pride
Five
Separation
Recognition
Satisfaction
179
Team development
Awareness : At this stage, individuals get to know to each
other. By knowing the goals of the team, they commit
themselves to the goals. The members get to know each other
and agree to work together for a goal about which they have
enough knowledge.
Conflict: At this stage, the members learn the team goals and
agree to work together; they search deeper and begin to ask
questions . As a result , matters are clarified, resulting in a
feeling of belonging in the group.
180
Team development
Cooperation: In the third stage, the members accept
ownership of the team goals and get involved with those goals.
Having resolved their feelings they also begin to support each
other.
Productivity: this is the stage for the actual achievement of
goals . Team members achieving objectives feel proud of their
achievement.
Separation: having accomplishing their goals or desired
outcomes , some task specific teams may decide to accept
dissolution of the team.
181
Advantage of Teams
Teams are very useful in performing work that is
complicated, complex.
Teams make important contributions to organizations
in work areas that lend themselves to teamwork.
Teams are appropriate where knowledge, skills and
abilities are dispersed for task accomplishment.
Teams are necessary in driving principles of total
quality efforts in organizations
182
Team Roles
Since team members are accountable for results and

function in a cohesive way enough attention needs
to be given to the formation of teams.
Synergy is produced when individuals members in a
team supplement and support each other.
Dr.Belbin(1981) did pioneering work in this regard.
He proposed the term Team Roles for process
roles which team members plat in addition to their
functional roles. Dr. Belbin identified eight roles
183
Team Roles Dr. Belbin
Chairman
Shaper
Plant
Monitor
Company worker
Resource investigator
Team worker
Finisher
184

Roles
Descriptions
Chairman
Such a person is stable , dominant , extrovert and

preoccupied with objective. This is a person of character
and discipline . He or she is objective, established , sums
them up and comes to firm conclusions
Shaper
Such a person is anxious, dominant and an extrovert. This

individual is outgoing , full of energy and easily
frustrated. He or she give shape to the trams effort ,
pushed for decisions.
Plant
Such a person has a very high IQ and is an introvert. He

or she scatters the seeds of ideas for others to nourish and
is more concerned with basic issues. He or she can easily
withdraw.
185

Roles
Descriptions
Monitor
Such a person is also an introvert with a high IQ very

serious, critical given to unbiased analysis and perhaps
seen as a destroyer of ideas. He or she lacks warmth but is
rarely wrong.
Company
worker
Such a person is stable, controlled and a practical

organizer. He or she is adaptable . His or her greatest
asset is that people ask him or her where the team is in
relation to issues being discussed.
Resource
investigator
Such a person is a dominant , friendly , relaxed extrovert,

probably the most popular member of the team. He or she
brings outside resources and keeps in touch with reality.
186

Roles
Descriptions
Team worker Such a person is a stable , sensitive extrovert, concerned
with people and their needs. He or she is loyal to the team

and avoids confrontation.
Finisher
Such a person is anxious, an introvert and ill at ease until

all the details are worked out . He or she follows through
on decisions taken but is fussy about the details.
187
Turnaround Through Teams- Case Study /

Example
Background of the case:
National limited is a Japanese joint venture operating in India,

producing and marketing the well known Novino batteries. In
1990, the company launched the Human 21 campaign of
innovation to double performance by 1993. The campaign was
designed by Mastsushita electric one of the owners of company.
Human 21 is use full for the generating energies within the staff
in a visible manner so that company could be fully ready to
meet the challenges of the twenty first century. Each
department undertook to double the performance in its work
areas by 1993
188

Example
Process
Seventy two sub themes were identified and teams were formed to pursue
each one of these .Some of the sub themes were:
- The formulation of system for improving the health of the employees.
- Reduction of the rejection by 50 percent.
- Reduction of total inventory level by 50 percent.
- Increase of output of battery by 70 percent without increasing in manpower
- Doubling of sales in various states.
- Reducing the manual workload in preparing accounts by 50 percent
through computerization.
189

Example
Outcome.
- Health of the employees improved to a large extent.
- Accounts were settled in lesser time and returns were filled
before the last date of the government.
- Inventory cost reduced by 15 percentage.
- Production output increased as per the plans.
- Market share increased by 30 percentage.
190
Team Effectiveness
Team effectives can be considered from several
angles.
To use the Johari Window Concept, an effective
teams is one in which people give their opinions and
comments without hesitations, listen to others, and
examine others opinions . Comments and feedback
irrespective of hierarchy and are sensitive to the
needs of other.
191
JOHARI WINDOW MODEL
ARENA
(open/free)
Hidden
BLIND SPOT
UNKNOWN
192
JOHARI WINDOW PANES

I know Yourself
group knows
aware
I do not know
aware
unaware
Arena
Blind spot
Self
Disclosure
Others
unaware
group does
not know
Facade
Unknown
Feedback
193
193
Team Effectiveness
The role negotiation approach.
- Team building can be done by using role negotiation.
- Members of the team share each others images, then list
expectations of what they would like the others in the group to
continue to do , stop doing or reduce and then decide which
effective things to start or increase doing to make the group
more effective.
- Based on such expectations, negotiation between two teams
can be used to develop more and more collaboration
194
Role Negotiation between the Personnel and Finance

Departments at the Bokaro Steel Plant
Introduction:
1. The purpose of these exercises was to bring
the prejudices out in the open, leading to a
mutual empathy through positive images of
each other.
2. A total of 11 hours were spent on the
exercise, spread over two days.
195

Objective of the exercise:
1. The main objective of the exercise between the Personnel

and 'Finance departments was understanding each other's role
in the area of Employee Services (Payment of salaries and
other items),
2. Redressal of grievances, giving error free service, eliminating
hardships, treating employees as human beings, and image
building of the departments along with an improvement in
the services rendered by them to the employees.
196

Process:
The exercise started with a microlab in which the executives from
different departments worked in small groups which changed every few
minutes, and they shared pleasant and unpleasant experiences with each
other as also their own strengths and weaknesses.
This was followed by a sharing of perception about their own
department, the other department. and what they felt was the other's
perception about their own department.
They exchanged images and had an opportunity to seek clarification on
the images in a fish-bowl design.
This was followed by an empathy building exercise through a
projection of positive images about the other group
197

Process:
Lists were prepared on what the other group
should continue, stop or reduce, and start or
increase, to raise effectiveness.
Such expectations were exchanged and
clarifications were sought and given to help
understand their meaning and purpose.
198

Process.
Finally in the second round of role negotiation.
agreements were evolved on most or the
points.
One team consolidated and integrated the
points on which there was unanimous
agreement, and which could be implemented
jointly by both the groups without any external
help.
199

Outcomes:
The groups agreed to implement these with
immediate effect.
Another joint team consolidated points which
were not within their competence and needed
the approval and support of the top
management.
This also included simplification of rules and
procedures.
200
Team Effectiveness
The Behavior modification approach:
- Team building can also be done by helping people to
become more effective in their individual orientation.
- Transaction analysis is a useful instrument in making
people aware of their styles and orientations.
- This is seen as an important way to enhance
individuals potentials for collaboration and team
building.
201
Team Effectiveness
Monitoring
- Monitoring can be taken up by one or two members and the
team may meet from time to time to review the progress.
202
Members of Team Effectiveness

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Understand and are committed to group goals

Are friendly, concerned, and interested in others
Acknowledge and confront conflict openly
Listen to others with understanding
Include others in the decision-making process
Recognize and respect individual differences
Contribute ideas and solutions
Value the ideas and contributions of others
Recognize and reward team efforts
Encourage and appreciate comments about team performance
203
Module
No. 10
Leadership
204
Leadership Styles
Leadership is the act of making an impact on others in a

desired direction
Leadership helps organizations through
Excellence
Creativity
Vision
Building culture
Mentoring
Multiplying empowerment
Administration, Management and Leadership are

different, and perform important functions
205
Three Managerial Modes
206
Behavioural Theories of Leadership

Lewin:Autocratic, Democratic, Lassez-faire
Stogdill: Initiating structure (giving direction)
vs. consideration
Task-oriented vs people-oriented
Blake & Mouton: Treating these two dimensions
as independent; proposed 5 styles (1,1; 9,1;
1,9; 5,5; 9,9)
207
Contingency Theories of Leadership

Fiedlers Contingency Theory
- effectiveness of task and people
orientation contingent on situation
- cognitive resource theory relates cognitive
resources of leader to group performance
Path Goal Theory
- suggests four types of leaders : directive,
supportive, participative, achievementoriented
Situational Theory
- views leadership as a function of a
situation
- leader is effective if style used to alter and
influence the situation is appropriate : directive,
supportive, consulting, delegating
208
Leadership Effectiveness
Leadership effectiveness means using style appropriate to the situation
Situation is defined in terms of the development level of the
Development level is indicated by competence, commitment,
team
cohesion
Development Level Low
Development Level Moderately Low (D-2) Two of them Low
Development Level Moderately High (D-3) Two of them High
Development Level High
Competence
Relevant information
(D-1) All Low
(D-4) All High
Commitment/MotivationCohesion/TeamSpirit
Taking responsibility
Cohesion
Relevant skills
Realistic challenging goals
Collaboration
Effective planning
Involvement/satisfaction
Confrontation
209
Four Leadership Styles
210
Leadership Effectiveness Hershey and Blanchard
Leadership effectiveness involves

Style appropriateness no style of
leadership is ideal each style is effective depending on

the situation an effective leader uses the style best
suited for the situation
Style flexibility
capability of leader to use various styles with ease
appropriate use of various styles as relevant to
situation leader must posses diagnostic competence
211
Raising Development Level

Competence
Provide relevant information

Build relevant skills
Use long-term planning
Commitment
Help people set challenging but realistic goals

Support them to achieve the goals
Use feedback and reward
Cohesion
Make the team responsible for most tasks

Provide resources
Include team work for appraisal and rewards
212
Steps for Delegation
Delegation is an effective way of empowerment

Empowering is the process of expanding choices for an individual, and
helping him/her to use alternative choices to widen the choices of
others
Steps for delegation
1. Jointly define role boundaries
2. Provide needed competencies
3. Provide needed resources
4. Monitor but do not closely supervise
5. Reward discretion and initiative
6. Respect role boundaries
7. Jointly analyse mistakes to plan for the future
8. Review delegation down the line
213
Organizational
Module 11 Culture
214
Organisational Culture and Climate

Culture
The cumulative beliefs, values, and assumptions underlying
transactions with nature, and important phenomena, as reflected in
artifacts, rituals
Climate
The perceived attributes of an organisation and its subsystem
reflected in the way it deals with its members, groups, and issues
Ethos
The underlying spirit or character of an entity and is made up of
its beliefs, customs or practices ( at the base of ethos are core
values)
215

The various terms used in the context of organizational
culture are values, ethics, beliefs, ethos, climate,
environment, culture.
Ethics refers to normative aspects to what is socially
desirable
Values, beliefs, attitudes and norms are interrelated.
Interaction between beliefs and values results in attitude
formation and then produce norms.
The core of the culture is the values, which give distinct
identify to a group. This is the ethos of the group.
216

The second level concept is climate, which can be
defined as the perceived attributes of an organization
and its subsystem as reflected in the way it deals with
its members, groups and issues.
The third level concept relates to atmosphere, the
effect of the climate
The fourth concept is culture, the cumulative beliefs ,
values and assumptions underlying transactions with
nature and important phenomena as reflected in
artifacts, rituals etc .
217
OCTAPACE Ethos
Eight important values relevant to organizations:
OCTA (eight) PACE (steps)
1. Openness
2. Confrontation
3. Trust
4. Authenticity
5. Proaction
6. Autonomy
7. Collaboration
8. Experimentation
218
OCTAPACE Ethos
Openness refers to feelings and thoughts and the sharing of
these without defensiveness. Openness is in both directions,
receiving and giving. Both these may relate to ideas.
Confrontation refers to acing rather than shying away from
problems. It also implies deeper analysis of interpersonal
problems. All this involves taking up challenges.
Trust reflected in maintaining the confidentiality of
information shared by others and in mot misusing it. It is also
reflected in a sense of assurance that other will help when such
help is needed and will honor mutual commitment and
obligations.
219
OCTAPACE Ethos
Authenticity is the congruence between what one feels says
and does. It is reflected in owning up ones mistakes and in
unreserved sharing of feelings.
Proaction means taking the initiative, preplanning and taking
preventive action and calculating the payoffs of an alternative
course before taking action.
Autonomy is using and giving freedom to plan and act in ones
own sphere. It means respecting and encouraging individual
and role autonomy. It develops mutual respect and is likely to
result in willingness to take on responsibility
220
OCTAPACE Ethos
Collaboration is giving help to and asking for help from
others. It means working together to solve problems and
team spirit. the indication could be productivity reports,
more meetings , involvements of staff , more joint
decisions, better resource utilization and higher quality of
meetings.
Experimenting means using and encouraging innovative
approaches to solve problems, using feedback for
improving, taking a fresh look a things and encoring
creativity.
221
Organizational Culture
Basic Assumptions :
- These are the basic perception held by the members.
- It is what drives the organization.
- It also includes how members think, feel and behave.
For example :
- Market oriented communication system ( AT&T)
- Customer orientation (Citi Bank)( IBM)
- Employee participation, open communication ( Sony
Corporation )
- Risk taking and innovation ( Hewlett Packard)
222
Values:
- These are the social principles , goals or standards held by
members of an organization, individually and collectively.
- They reflect what is important in the organization and
determining how the organization ought to be.
- Identifying , communicating and shaping organizational values
is difficult as values relate more to employee emotions and
feelings.
- Examples of core values integrity , respect and trust,
excellence
223
Norms:
- They are unwritten rules of behavior.
- Norms tell employees what they are supposed to be
saying, believing and doing and what is right and what is
wrong.
For example:
IBM norms indicate that employees should activity
listen and respond to customer demands and complaints
224
Objects:
- The visible aspects of culture as seen in the environment
of the organization.
- They are in the form of
- Symbols , structure.
- Rules and procedures.
- media reports and stories about organization.
225
TYPES OF CULTURES:
TYPES OF CULTURES:
Deal and Kennedy have described the four basic types of
organization cultures.
- Baseball team Culture.
- Club Culture.
- Academy Culture.
- Fortress Culture.
226
Base ball Team culture:

- They attract entrepreneurs, innovations and risk taking
and pay employees for what they produce.
- Top performers often receive large financial rewards.
- However risk are high and long term security is virtually
nonexistent.
- The outcome of this culture is job hopping is common.
Examples of industries: computer software, investment
Banks.
227
Club Culture:
- They reward seniority and provide stable, secure
employment.
- They reward loyalty , commitment.
- Employees often start young and may spend 15- 40 years
with the same firm.
Examples : Government agencies, military.
228
Academy Culture:
- They focus on training employees to become expert in a
particular function.
- They stress on continuity of service, functional expertise.
- They are liked by steady climber who enjoy mastering the
job.
- They tend to recruit from college.
Example: Coco cola, IBM, Procter and Gamble.
229
Fortress Culture :
- They promise little in the way of job security and have
difficulty in rewarding employees for good performance.
- They are always in the process of restructuring, causing
dismissal of employees.
- It provides the opportunity for individuals to turnaround
the firm.
Examples: textile firms, large retailers.
230
Keeping Culture Alive

Selection
Concerned with how well the candidates will fit into the
organization.
Provides information to candidates about the organization.
Human Job analysis
Top Management
Senior executives help establish behavioral norms that are
adopted by the organization.
Socialization
The process that helps new employees adapt to the
organizations culture.
231
Building an adaptive culture

By Anil Noronha, Director HR Novell software (India)
Pvt Ltd.
1. Embracing an adaptive culture is a must if one has to
survive in todays competitive environment.
2. Leaders must engage everyone in the change process,
set role expectations in participating in and leading
change.
3. Leader must gain commitment from employees to align
themselves to a desired company culture.
232
4. Many things may force an organisation to embrace an adaptive
culture. External factors like increased competition, the

economy and increased opportunities.
5. Internal factors could include changing strategy to adapt to
newer challenges. Whatever the circumstances, striving to
make deep changes in culture is a difficult and painful
process.
6. Leaders have to walk the talk to play a key role in leading
cultural transformation. The talk part equates with company
vision, mission and its strategy. It is more difficult to walk
by practicing and living our values and principles that guide
our every day behavior at work.
233
Difference between organizational culture and

climate
Organizational culture is concerned with

beliefs where as the climate is concerned
fulfillment of those beliefs.
Climate is concerned with the perception of
the employees towards the organization.
Factors included in the climate are job
descriptions , job evaluations, performance.
234
Two major categories of Climate

(Overt factors) Visible parts of the climate are
structure , technology, performance standards,
objectives.
(Covert factors) Invisible parts of the climate
are employees feelings, attitudes, values sense
of satisfaction with the job.
235
Factors affecting organizational climate
Organizational context.
Organizational structure.
Process
Physical environment.
System values and norms.
236
Organizational context.
They are expressed in terms of rules,
regulations and policies.
Climate is said highly favorable when the
existing management techniques are such that
employees goals are perfectly matched to the
ideals of organization.
237
Organizational structure
Highly decentralized structure results in
sound climate.
Management must have strong beliefs in
participative management.
This helps in greater degree of consistency in
operations.
238
Process
Communication , decision making ,motivation,
leadership form the part of process.
Organization has to develop better process for
better organizational climate.
In all these processes, the relationship between
superior and subordinate is important in
creating the better climate.
239
Physical Environment
The size and location of the building including
the city.
Safe environment will undoubtedly have a
favorable perception among the employees.
Noise level , office dcor have impact on the
job leading to organizational climate.
240
System Values and Norms

Treat employees with respect and understand
them.
Reward the best performing employee.
241
Developing a sound organizational climate.
1. Linking rewards with performance.

2. Developing high standards of excellence in
every operation and evaluations.
3. Encouragement for participative methods of
decision making.
4. Encouragement for innovation and freedom
to act upon ideas.
242
Developing a sound organizational climate
5. Reduction of political environment.

6. Reduction of conflict among the employees.
7. Develop better social relationship among the
employees.
243

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ORGANIZATIONAL

Introduction, definition, historical

Meaning of Organizational Behavior

Organizational behavior is the study of human behavior

Human units and interfaces with

Emerging Trends and Issues

Challenges and Opportunities for OB

Working in Networked Organizations

The relationship between age and job performance is

Productivity declines with age.

Reviews of the research find that age and job performance

Women are more willing to conform to authority,

There are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about

Everyone has strengths and weaknesses in terms of ability in

Intellectual abilities are those needed to perform

Jobs differ in the demands they place on incumbents to use

For example, the more information-processing demands that

A careful review of the evidence demonstrates that tests

Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Ability to identify a logical

Ability to use logic and asses

Ability to imagine how an

Ability to retain and recall past

Specific physical abilities gain importance in doing less

NINE BASIC PHYSICAL ABILITIES

Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly over time.

Ability to exert muscular force using the trunk

Ability to exert force against external objects

Ability to move the trunk and back as far as possible

Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movement

Ability to coordinate the simultaneous action of different parts

Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off

Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort

Urge to help and care

THE ABILITY-JOB FIT

Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high

Why individuals differ in terms of

Why individuals differ in terms of

Personality Characteristics in Organizations

Hundreds of personality characteristics have

Some characteristics with interesting

Personality Characteristics in Organizations

Locus of control was suggested by Rotter in 1960

his/her own life.

More extraverted in their interpersonal relationships

to adhere rigidly to conventional

values and to obey recognized authority.

An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic,

People with a low-Machiavellian personality:

Measurement of personality in the organizations

Big five model

Big five model

Big five model

Big five model

Sixteen personality factors (16 PF)

Sixteen personality factors (16 PF)

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

It is a 100-question personality test that asks

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

The MBTI is used in :

Children adopt certain attitudes when their parents

Affective component- Affects the emotional or feeling