Nor Azimah Khalid

FSKM, UiTM Shah Alam

Where it is in OSI Model

Physical Layer

Duties of Physical Layer

convert
data (bit
pattern) to
signal

Determine
s maximum
limit of
data rate
transmissio
n depend
on the
design of
physical
hardware
and
software

providing
clocking
mechanis
m to
control
sender
and
receiver
timing
of the
transfer

set of
techniques
that allows
the
simultaneo
us
transmissio
n of
multiple
signals
across a
single data
link

Create
direct
connection
two devices
such as
phones or
computers

Analog & Digital Data

Analog data human voice
captured by a microphone and converted to an
analog signal
Digital data form 0s and 1s
converted to a digital signal when transferred

from one position to another

Analog signals can have an infinite number of

values in a range
Digital signals can have only a limited number

of values

Comparison of Analog &

Digital Signals

In data communications, we
commonly use periodic analog
signals and nonperiodic digital
signals.

Periodic & Aperiodic

Signals
Periodic signal completes a
pattern within a measurable time
frame, called a period and repeats
that pattern over subsequent identical
periods.
Completion of one full pattern
cycle
Aperiodic signal changes without
exhibiting a pattern or cycle that
repeats over time

Relationship Data &

Signals

Analog Signals
All analog signals have three components:
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
They can be classified as
Simple Sine wave, cannot be decomposed

into smaller signals

Composite Composed of multiple sine waves

Amplitude
The amplitude of a signal is the height of

the wave above or below a given reference

point
It is measured in volts

Amplitude

Represents the absolute value of its highest intensity,

proportional to the energy it carries

Amplitude Variations

Frequency
The frequency is the number of times a signal

makes a complete cycle within a given time

frame; frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), or
cycles per second
Spectrum the range of frequencies that a signal
spans from minimum to maximum
Bandwidth the absolute value of the difference
between the lowest and highest frequencies of a
signal

Frequency

Frequency
For example, consider an average voice
The average voice has a frequency range of

roughly 300 Hz to 3100 Hz

The spectrum would be 300 3100 Hz
The bandwidth would be 2800 Hz

Frequency
Change in a short span of time means

HIGH FREQUENCY.
Change over a loooooonnnnggg span of
time means LOW FREQUENCY
If a signal does not change at all, its
frequency is ZERO.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is INFINITE. (1/0)

Frequency Variations

Phase
The phase of a signal is the position of the waveform

relative to a given moment of time or relative to time

zero
A change in phase can be any number of angles
between 0 and 360 degrees
Phase changes often occur on common angles, such as
45, 90, 135, etc.
Phase is measured in degrees or radians (360 is 2 rad)
A phase shift of 360 corresponds to a shift of a
complete period; a phase shift of 180 corresponds to a
shift of one-half of a period; and a phase shift of 90
corresponds to a shift of one-quarter of a period

Phase

Example
A sine wave is offset one-sixth of a cycle with

respect to time zero. What is its phase in degrees

and radians?

We know that one complete cycle is 360

degrees.
Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
(1/6) 360 = 60 degrees = 60 x 2p /360 rad =
1.046 rad

Sine Wave
Changes over the course of a cycle is smooth

and consistent, continuous, rolling flow

Each cycle consist of a single arc above the
time axis and followed by a single arc below it
Mathematically describe as:

s(t) = A sin (2ft + )

Sine Wave
Peak amplitude (A)
maximum strength of signal
volts
Frequency (f)
rate of change of signal
Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second

Period = time for one repetition (T)

T = 1/f
Phase ()
relative position in time
measured in degrees or radians

Period and Frequency

Period amount of time, in seconds, a signal

needs to complete one cycle

Frequency no of periods in one second
Frequency and period are inverses of each other.
f = 1/T ; T = 1/f

Example
The power we use at home has a frequency of 60

Hz. The period of this sine wave can be

determined as follows:

Units of Periods &

Frequencies
UNIT

EQUIVALENT

Seconds (s)

1s

UNIT
hertz (Hz)

EQUIVALENT
1 Hz

Milliseconds
(ms)

103 s

kilohertz
(KHz)

103 Hz

Microseconds
(s)

106 s

megahertz
(MHz)

106 Hz

Nanoseconds
(ns)

109 s

gigahertz
(GHz)

109 Hz

Picoseconds
(ps)

1012 s

terahertz
(THz)

1012 Hz

Period

Frequency

Exercise

Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds, and

express the corresponding frequency in kilohertz.

Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalent of 1

ms.We make the following substitutions:

100 ms = 100 10-3 s = 100 10-3 106
ms = 105 ms
Now we use the inverse relationship to find
the frequency, changing hertz to kilohertz
100 ms = 100 10-3 s = 10-1 s
f = 1/10-1 Hz = 10 10-3 KHz = 10-2 KHz

Wavelength
distance occupied by one cycle
Between two points of corresponding phase in

two consecutive cycles

It is the distance between repeating units of a
propagating wave of a given frequency
Mathematically:
Wavelength=propagation speed x period = propagation

speed
frequency

Time and Frequency

Domain
Time domain shows changes in signal
amplitude with respect to time
Phase and frequency are not explicitly

measured on a time domain plot

Frequency domain shows changes in

amplitude with respect to frequency

Time and Frequency

Domain

Time and Frequency

Domain

Time and Frequency

Domain

A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.

Time and Frequency

Domain

Time and Frequency

Domain

Composite Signals
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data

communications. E.g.
Phone conversation if use single signal it just
yield a buzz
Changes of one or more of its characteristics need
to be done to make it useful.
The signal will become a Composite Signal
(which is made of many simple sine waves)

Fourier Analysis
According to Fourier Analysis, any composite

signal can be represented as a combination of

simple sine waves with different frequencies,
phases and amplitudes

Fourier Analysis

Frequency Spectrum
The description of a signal using the

frequency domain and containing all its

components

Composite Signal &

Transmission
Medium
no transmission medium is perfect

each medium passes some frequencies;

weaken others;
blocks still others.
that will give this result

Bandwidth
Range of frequencies that a medium can

pass;
without losing one-half of the power
contained in that signal.
It is a property of a medium: the difference
between the highest and the lowest
frequencies that the medium can
satisfactorily pass.

Bandwidth of Signals

Exercise
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine

waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and

900 Hz, what is the bandwidth? Draw the
spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.

Solution
B = fh -fl = 900 - 100 = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100,

300, 500, 700, and 900

Digital Signals
+ve voltage

zero voltage

Bit Interval & Bit Rate

Bit interval time required to send one single

bit
Bit rate no of bit intervals per second (bps)

Exercise
A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000bps.

What is the duration of each bit?

Solution
The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate
Bit interval = 1/2000s = 0.000500s

= 0.000500 x 106 s
= 500 s

Digital Signals
A digital signal is a composite signal with an

infinite bandwidth
Digital signal through a wide-bandwidth medium
i.e:- using coaxial cable to send a digital signal
through a LAN
Digital signal through a band-limited medium
i.e:- sending data using telephone lines to the
internet

Digital vs Analog

Bandwidth Requirement
Bit
Rate

Harmoni
Harmonics
c
1, 3
1

Harmonic
s
1, 3, 5

Harmonics
1, 3, 5, 7

1 Kbps

500 Hz

2 KHz

4.5 KHz

8 KHz

10 Kbps

5 KHz

20 KHz

45 KHz

80 KHz

100 Kbps

50 KHz

200 KHz

450 KHz

800 KHz

The bit rate and the bandwidth are

proportional to each other.

Digital vs Analog
Bandwidth
Analog Bandwidth range of
frequencies that a medium can pass; in
Hertz
Digital Bandwidth maximum bit rate
that a medium can pass; in bps