Nor Azimah Khalid

FSKM, UiTM Shah Alam

Digital Transmission
Digital-to-Digital Conversion
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Transmission Mode

Line Coding

Line coding

process of converting a sequence of digital

(binary) data to digital signal

Signal Element vs Data

Element

Data element = data

levels
no. of values used to
represent data
Smallest entity to
represent information
What are needed to
be sent
Signal element =
signal levels
no. of values allowed
in a particular signal
Shortest unit of a
digital signal
What it can be send
Data element are being
carried and signal
elements are the
carriers

Signal Element vs Data

Element
Signal element
a part of a signal that is distinguished by

its:*duration,*magnitude,*nature (the modulation

technique used to create the element)
relative position to other elements
transition from one signal state to another.

Data element
A basic unit of information built on standard

structures having a unique meaning and distinct

units or values

Example
A signal is carrying data in which one data

element is encoded as one signal element ( r = 1).

If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average
value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?

Solution

We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 .

The baud rate is then

Data Rate vs Signal Rate

Data Rate = Bit Rate
No. of data element sent in 1s; unit in bps

Signal Rate
A.k.a pulse rate, modulation rate or baud rate
No. of signal element send in 1s
Unit is the baud

In data communication
Increase data rate increase the speed of transmission
Decrease signal rate decrease bandwidth

requirement

DC Component
Some line coding leave a residual direct-current (dc) component
This component is an undesirable components with reasons: signal is distorted / create errors in the output when pass through
a system that does not allow passage of a dc component (i.e:
transformer)
extra energy residing on the line and useless
DC component
occurred when
voltage level in a
digital signal is
constant ~
spectrum create
very low
frequencies ~
frequencies
around zero ~
problem to pass
low frequencies
for certain system

Synchronization

includes timing information in the data being transmitted

can be achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the receiver to the
beginning, middle or end of the pulse
to receive signal correctly, receivers bit interval must correspond exactly to
the senders bit interval
if the receivers clock is out of synchronization, the alerting points can reset the
clock

Effect of lack of synchronization

Line Coding Schemes

Unipolar

Simple & Primitive

Use only 1 voltage level
1 +ve value; 0 zero value
Inexpensive to implement
2 problems
dc component
Lack of synchronization

Polar
Uses 2 voltage levels (+ve and ve)

NRZ (Non Return to Zero)

NRZ encoding

the value of the signal is always either +ve or ve

NRZ-L (Nonreturn Zero-level)

the level of the signal depends on the type of bit that

it represents
0 = positive voltage (+ve); 1 = negative voltage (-ve)

NRZ-I (Nonreturn Zero-invert)

inversion of the voltage level represents a 1 bit

0 = no changes; 1 = have transition between +ve
and ve voltage
Inverted if a 1 is encountered

NRZ-L and NRZ-I

Encoding

NRZ-L and NRZ-I

Encoding
In NRZ-L the level of the voltage
determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion
or the lack of inversion
determines the value of the bit.
NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC
component problem.

Return to Zero (RZ)

use three values: +ve, -ve and zero
i.e: 1 bit positive to zero, 0 bit negative to zero
disadvantage occupies more bandwidth (requires two signal
changes to encode 1 bit)
the most effective compare within these three alternative
encoding schemes.

Manchester
use an inversion at the middle of each bit interval for both
synchronization and bit representation.
binary 1 negative to positive, binary 0 positive to negative
Consider achieve same level of synchronization as RZ but only
involve two levels of amplitude

Differential Manchester Encoding

the inversion at the middle of the bit interval is used for
synchronization, BUT the presence or absence of an additional
transition at the beginning of the interval is used to identify the bit.
binary 0 transition; binary 1 no transition

Manchester and Differential

Manchester
In Manchester and differential Manchester
encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.
The minimum bandwidth of Manchester
and differential Manchester is 2 times that
of NRZ.

Bipolar
use three voltage levels (+ve, -ve and zero)
a common bipolar encoding known as Bipolar Alternate Mark
Inversion (AMI) alternate 1 inversion
means : 0 = 0 voltage; 1 = alternation +ve and ve
voltage
Modification of bipolar AMI to solve the problem of
synchronizing sequential 0s, especially for long-distance
transmission known as BnZS (Bipolar n-zero substitution)
Bipolar n-zero substitution (BnZS) wherever n consecutive
zeros
occur in the sequence, some of the bits in these n bits become
+ve
or ve (to help synchronization)

Multilevel Schemes
Reason for creation of many schemes
To increase data speed or decrease required
bandwidth
Increase number of bits per baud by
encoding a pattern of m data elements into a
pattern of n signal elements

In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data

elements is encoded as a pattern of n
signal elements in which 2m Ln.

Other Schemes: 2B1Q

2 binary, one quaternary (2B1Q): uses 4 voltage levels
each pulse can represent 2 bits (more efficient)

Other Schemes: MLT-3

Multiline transmission, three level (MLT-3): ~ NRZ-I

use three levels signals (+1, 0, -1)
signal transit at the beginning of a 1 bit; no transition at the begin

Summary of Line Coding

Block Coding
to improve the performance of line coding
Need some kind of redundancy to ensure synchronization
Need to include other redundant bits to detect errors.

Steps in Transformation
Step 1 Division
Sequence of bits is divided into groups of m
bits
Step 2 Substitution
substitute an m-bit code for an n-bit group
E.g: 4B/5B encoding
refer Figure 4.16
Step 3 Line Coding
use one of the line coding schemes to create a
signal
sometimes step 2 and 3 can be combined

Substitution in block coding

Some Common Block Codes: 4B/5B

Data

Code

Data

Code

0000

11110

1000

10010

0001

01001

1001

10011

0010

10100

1010

10110

0011

10101

1011

10111

0100

01010

1100

11010

0101

01011

1101

11011

0110

01110

1110

11100

0111

01111

1111

11101

Some Common Block Codes: 4B/5B

Data

Code

Q (Quiet)

00000

I (Idle)

11111

H (Halt)

00100

J (start delimiter)

11000

K (start delimiter)

10001

T (end delimiter)

01101

S (Set)

11001

R (Reset)

00111

Some Common Block Codes:

Similar to 4B/5B;
8B/10B

Group of 8 bits of data is substituted by a 10-

bit code
More error detection capability than 4B/5B

Some Common Block Codes: 8B/6T

designed to substitute an 8-bit group with a six
symbol code;
each symbol is ternary, having one of three signal
levels
each block of 8-bit data is encoded as units of
ternary signals (three levels)

Analog-to-Digital
Conversion
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation
Sampling rate: Nyquist Theorem
Delta Modulation

Sampling
Line coding and block coding use to convert

binary data to digital signal

Voice or video created as analog signal in
order to store the recording in the computer
or send it digitalized; need to change it
through process sampling

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

analog to digital conversion method
Technique : take analog signal sample it generate the series
of
pulse based on the result of the sampling
sampling means measuring the amplitude of the signal
at equal intervals
Use technique sample and hold
PAM has some application, but is not use in data
communication. However, it is the first step in another popular
conversion method call Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Pulse Code Modulation

modifies the pulses created by PAM to create a completely
digital signal
Quantization: method of assigning integral values in a
specific range to sampled instances

Quantization by using sign and magnitude

This figure illustrate a simple method of assigning sign and magnitude

to quantized Sample. Each value translate into its 7-bit binary
equivalent. The eighth bit indicates the sign

Quantization and encoding of a

sampled signal

PCM

This figure shows the result of PCM of the original signal encoded
into unipolar signal

PCM is made up of PAM, quantization, binary encoding an

From analog signal to PCM digital code

Sampling Rate: Nyquist Theorem

According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate
must be at least 2 times the highest frequency.

Exercise
What sampling rate is needed for a signal

with a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to

11,000 Hz)?

Solution
The sampling rate must be twice the highest

frequency in the signal

Sampling rate = 2 x (11,000) = 22,000 samples/s

Exercise
A signal is sampled. Each sample requires

at least 12 levels of precision (+0 to +5

and -0 to -5). How many bits should be
sent for each sample?

Solution
We need 4 bits; 1 bit for the sign and 3 bits

for the value. A 3-bit value can represent

23 = 8 levels (000 to 111), which is more
than what we need. A 2-bit value is not
enough since 22 = 4. A 4-bit value is too
much because 24 = 16

Delta Modulation

PCM is a complex technique; Delta Modulation is simplest

PCM find value of the signal amplitude for each sample; DM finds the
changes from the previous sample

Delta Modulation
Components

Modulator at sender to create bit stream from analog signal

The process records the small positive or negative changes, called
If positive = process record binary 1; if negative = process record binary 0
Modulator function:
Compare at each sampling interval between value of analog signal with the
last with the last value of staircase signal
If amplitude of analog signal is larger; the next bit in digital signal is 1;
otherwise it is 0
Output from comparator make staircase itself
Staircase: if next bit is 1 staircase maker move the last point of staircase
signal up, if next bit is 0, move to down
Delay unit to hold the staircase function for a period for two comparison

Bit Rate
After finding the number of bits per sample,

we can calculate the bit rate by using the

following formula:
Bit rate = sampling rate x number of bits per
sample

Exercise
We want to digitize the human voice. What

is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?

Solution
The human voice normally contains

frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz.

Sampling rate = 4000 x 2 = 8000
samples/s
Bit rate = sampling rate x number of bits

per sample
= 8000 x 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 Kbps

Note
Note that we can always
change a band-pass signal
to a low-pass signal before
sampling. In this case, the
sampling rate is twice the
bandwidth.

Transmission Modes

Parallel Transmission

This mechanism is conceptually simple one

Use n wires to send n bits at one time
Advantages
speed can increase the transmission speed by the factor
of n
over serial transmission
Drawback:
cost requires n communication line to transmit the data
stream

Serial Transmission

Transmission based on bit by bit at one time therefore only

need one communication line
Advantages :
reduce cost of transmission
Since communication within devices is parallel, need
conversion between
the sender and the line (parallel -to-serial) and ,
between the line and the receiver (serial -to- parallel)

Asynchronous
Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, we send 1
start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more
stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte.
There may be a gap between each byte

Asynchronous
Transmission
Asynchronous here means asynchronous
the byte level, but the bits are still
synchronized, their durations are the same

at

Synchronous
Transmission
In synchronous transmission, we send bits
one after another without start/stop bits or
gaps
It is the responsibility of the receiver to group
the bits

Asynchronous vs
Synchronous
Asynchronous
Slower transmission or low-speed

communication
Cheap and effective
E.g: Keyboard only one character at one time
and leave unpredictable gap of time between
each character

Synchronous
Faster transmission useful for high speed

application

Isochronous
In real-time audio and video, uneven delays

between frames are not acceptable,

synchronous transmission fail
E.g.: TV images broadcast at 30 images per
second; so must be viewed at the same rate.
The entire stream of bit must be synchronized
Guarantees data arrive at fixed rate