Control Systems

Lect.4 Time Response

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Roadmap (Time Responses)

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Chapter Learning Outcomes

After
completing this chapter the student will be able to:

Use poles and zeros of transfer functions to determine the time

response of a control system (Sections 4.1-4.2)
Describe the transient response of first-order systems (Section 4.3)
Write the general response of second-order systems (Section 4.4)
Find the and of a second-order system (Section 4.5)
Find the settling time, peak time, percent overshoot, and rise time for
an underdamped second-order system (Section 4.6)
Approximate higher-order systems and systems with zeros as first- or
second-order systems (Sections 4.7-4.8)
Find time response from state-space representation (Sec 4.10-4.11)

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Why Study Time Responses

Modeling
Some parameters in the system can be estimated
or identified by time responses.
Analysis
Evaluate transient and steady-state responses to
see if they meets performance requirement
(Satisfactory or not?)
Design
Given design specs in terms of transient and
steady state
responses, design controllers satisfying all the
design specs.

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4.1 Introduction
After
obtaining a mathematical representation of a subsystem,
the subsystem is analyzed for its transient and steady-state
responses to see if these characteristics yield the desired
behavior. This chapter is devoted to the analysis of system
transient response.
Time response of a control system consists of two parts:

Transient

steady state

Transient

response is the part of time response that goes to zero t

Steady state response is the part of the total response that remains after the
transient has died out.
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Time Responses Input and Output

We would like to analyze a system property by applying

a test input r(t) and observing a time response y(t).
Time response can be divided as

Transie
nt
respons
e

Steadystate
response

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4.2 Poles, Zeros, and System Response

The output response of a system is the sum of two responses:
the forced response and the natural response.
Although many techniques, such as solving a differential
equation or taking the inverse Laplace transform, enable us to
evaluate this output response, these techniques are laborious
and time-consuming.
The use of poles and zeros and their relationship to the time
response of a system is such a technique.
The concept of poles and zeros, fundamental to the analysis
and design of control systems, simplifies the evaluation of a
system's response.
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4.2 Poles, Zeros, and System Response

Poles of a Transfer Function
the poles of a transfer function are the roots of the characteristic
polynomial in the denominator.

Zeros of a Transfer Function

the zeros of a transfer function are the roots of the characteristic
polynomial in the nominator.

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Poles and Zeros of a First-Order System:

An Example
Given
R(S)=1/S as shown in the figure below

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Poles and Zeros of a First-Order System:

An Example

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Poles and Zeros of a First-Order System:

An Example
From the development summarized in pervious Figure, we draw
the following conclusions:
1. A pole of the input function generates the form of the forced
response
2. A pole of the transfer function generates the form of the
natural response.
3. The farther to the left a pole is on the negative real axis, the
faster the exponential transient response will decay to zero.
4. The zeros and poles generate the amplitudes for both the
forced and natural responses.
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Example 4.1 P 165

PROBLEM: Given the system of Figure below, write the output, c(t),
in general terms. Specify the forced and natural parts of the solution.

SOLUTION: By inspection, each system pole generates an exponential

as part of the natural response. The input's pole generates the forced
response. Thus,

Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get

Forced
Response

Natural
Response
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4.3 First-Order Systems

We now discuss first-order systems without zeros to define a
performance specification for such a system. A first-order system
without zeros can be described by the transfer function shown in
Figure below.

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4.3 First-Order Systems

If the input is a unit step, where R(s) = 1/s, the Laplace
transform of the step response is C(s), where

Taking the inverse transform, the step response is given by

C(t)

1/a

0.63

2/a

0.86

3/a

0.95

4/a

0.98
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4.3 First-Order Systems

Time
Constant
We call l/a the time constant of the response.

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4.3 First-Order Systems

Rise
Time, Tr
Rise time is defined as the time for the waveform to go from 0.1
to 0.9 of its final value.

Settling Time, Ts
Settling time is defined as the time for the response to reach, and
stay within, 2% of its final value.

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4.4 Second-Order Systems

Let
us now extend the concepts of poles and zeros and
transient response to second order systems.
Compared to the simplicity of a first-order system, a secondorder system exhibits a wide range of responses that must be
analyzed and described.

forced

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Natural

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4.4 Second-Order Systems

There are 4 cases for 2nd order system;
1. Overdamped Response
2. Underdamped Response
3. Undamped Response
4. Critically Damped Response

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Overdamped Response
This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and
two real poles that come from the system.
The input pole at the origin generates the constant forced response; each of
the two system poles on the real axis generates an exponential natural
response whose exponential frequency is equal to the pole location.
Hence, the output initially could have been written as

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Underdamped Response
This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and

two complex poles that come from the system.

the poles that generate the natural response are at s = 1

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Undamped Response
This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and
two imaginary poles that come from the system.
The input pole at the origin generates the constant forced response, and the
two system poles on the imaginary axis at j3 generate a sinusoidal natural
response whose frequency is equal to the location of the imaginary poles.
Hence, the output can be estimated as c(t) = K1 + K4 cos(3t - ).

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Critically Damped Response

This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and
two multiple real poles that come from the system.
The input pole at the origin generates the constant forced response, and the
two poles on the real axis at 3 generate a natural response consisting of an
exponential and an exponential multiplied by time.
Hence, the output can be estimated as

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Natural Responses and Found Their Characteristics

1. Overdamped
Responses

Poles: Two real at

2. Underdamped responses
Poles: Two complex at
3. Undamped responses
Poles: Two imaginary at
4. Critically damped responses
Poles: Two real at
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Step Responses for Second-Order System

Damping Cases

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4.5 The General Second-Order System

In this section, we define two physically meaningful
specifications for second-order systems.
These quantities can be used to describe the characteristics of
the second-order transient response just as time constants
describe the first-order system response.
The two quantities are called natural frequency and damping
ratio.

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4.5 The General Second-Order System

Natural
Frequency,

The natural frequency of a second-order system is the

frequency of oscillation of the system without damping.
Damping Ratio,

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4.5 The General Second-Order System

Letus now revise our description of the second-order system to reflect
the new definitions.
The general second-order system can be transformed to show the
quantities and . Consider the general system

Without damping, the poles would be on the jw-axis, and the response
would be an undamped sinusoid. For the poles to be purely imaginary,
a = 0. Hence,

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4.5 The General Second-Order System

Bydefinition, the natural frequency, , is the frequency of
oscillation of this system. Since the poles of this system are on
the -axis at j,
Our general second-order transfer function finally looks like this:

Now that we have defined , and , let us relate these quantities to the
pole location. Solving for the poles of the transfer function in above
Eq.

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Second-Order Response as a Function

of Damping Ratio

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Example 4.4 P. 176

PROBLEM: For each of the systems shown below, find the
value of and report the kind of response expected.

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Example 4.4 P. 176

SOLUTION: First match the form of these systems to the forms
shown in Eqs.

we find
= 1.155 for system (a), which is thus overdamped, since > 1;
= 1 for system (b), which is thus critically damped; and
= 0.894 for system (c), which is thus underdamped, since < 1.

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4.6 Underdamped Second-Order Systems

Now
that we have generalized the second-order transfer

function in terms of and let us analyze the step response of an

underdamped second-order system.
Not only will this response be found in terms of and , but
more specifications indigenous to the underdamped case will
be defined.
A detailed description of the underdamped response is
necessary for both analysis and design.
Our first objective is to define transient specifications associated
with underdamped responses. Next we relate these specifications
to the pole location, drawing an association between pole location
and the form of the underdamped second-order response
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4.6 Underdamped Second-Order Systems

Let us begin by finding the step response for the general secondorder system of Eq.
The transform of the response, C(s), is the transform of the input
times the transfer function, or
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

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4.6 Underdamped Second-Order Systems

A plot of this response appears in Figure below for various
values of , plotted along a time axis normalized to the
natural frequency.
The lower the value of , the more oscillatory the response.

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4.6 Underdamped Second-Order Systems

Wehave defined two parameters associated with second-order systems,
and Other parameters associated with the underdamped response are rise
time, peak time, percent overshoot, and settling time. These
specifications are defined as follows:
1. Rise time, The time required for the waveform to go from 0.1 of the
final value to 0.9 of the final value.
2. Peak time, Tp: The time required to reach the first, or maximum,
peak.
3. Percent overshoot, %OS: The amount that the waveform overshoots
the steady state, or final, value at the peak time, expressed as a
percentage of the steady-state value.
4. Settling time:Ts. The time required for the transient's damped
oscillations to reach and stay within 2% of the steady-state value.
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Second-Order Underdamped Response

Specifications

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Typical Unit Step Response

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Typical Unit Step Response

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Second-Order Underdamped Response

Specifications
Peak time, Tp
Percent overshoot, %OS:

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Second-Order Underdamped Response

Specifications
Settling
time, Ts:
Rise time, :

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Peak Value, Peak Time, and Overshoot (%)

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Delay, Rise, and Settling Times

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2nd Order System Properties

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2nd Order System Remarks

Percent overshoot depends on , but NOT n.
From 2nd-order transfer function, analytic

expressions of delay & rise time are hard to

obtain.
Time
constant
is
1/(n),
indicating
convergence speed.
For >1, we cannot define peak time, peak
value, percent overshoot (no overshoot).

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Example 4.5 P. 182

PROBLEM:
Given the transfer function

find Tp, %OS, Ts, and Tr.

SOLUTION: Using
and are calculated as 0.75 and 10, respectively.

Now substitute and into Eqs. and find, respectively, that

Tp = 0.475 second, %OS = 2.838, and Ts, = 0.533 second.
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Pole plot for an underdamped second-order

system
The pole plot for a general, underdamped
second-order system, is shown in Figure below.
Poles (0<<1)
cos =

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Example 4.6 P.184

PROBLEM:
Given the pole plot shown in Figure below, find

and , Tp, %OS, and Ts.

SOLUTION:

The damping ratio is

given by =cos = 0.394
=7.616

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Example 4.6 P.184

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Example 4.7 P185

PROBLEM: Given the system shown below, find J and D to
yield 20% overshoot and a settling time of 2 seconds for a step
input of torque T(t).

SOLUTION: First, the transfer function for the system is

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Example 4.7 P185

From the transfer function,

from the problem statement,

a 20% overshoot implies = 0.456. Therefore

From the problem statement, K = 5 N-m/rad., D = 1.04 N-ms/rad, and J = 0.26 kg-m2.
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4.7 System Response with Additional

Poles
In the last section, we analyzed systems with one or two poles. It
must be emphasized that the formulas describing percent overshoot,
settling time, and peak time were derived only for a system with two
complex poles and no zeros.
If a system that has more than two poles or has zeros, we cannot use
the formulas to calculate the performance specifications that we
derived.
However, under certain conditions, a system with more than two
poles or with zeros can be approximated as a second-order system
that has just two complex dominant poles.
Once we justify this approximation, the formulas for percent
overshoot, settling time, and peak time can be applied to these
higher-order systems by using the location of the dominant poles.
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4.7 System Response with Additional

Poles
In
this section, we investigate the effect of an additional pole on

the second-order response.

Consider a three-pole system with complex poles and a third pole
on the real axis.
Assuming that the complex poles are at
and the
real pole is at -,
the step response of the system can be determined from a partialfraction expansion. Thus, the output transform is

or, in the time domain,

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4.7 System Response with Additional

Poles
The component parts of c(t) are shown below for three cases of -.
Case I If is not much greater than , the real pole's transient response
will not decay to insignificance at the peak time or settling time
generated by the second-order pair. In this case, the exponential decay is
significant, and the system cannot
be represented as a second-order system.
Case

II If , the pure exponential will die out

much more rapidly than the second-order
underdamped step response.

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4.7 System Response with Additional

Poles
Case
III If =, such parameters as percent overshoot, settling time, and
peak time will be generated by the second-order underdamped step
response component
The next question is, How much farther from the
dominant poles does the third pole have to be for
its effect on the second-order response to be
negligible?
The answer of course depends on the accuracy for which you are
looking. However, this book assumes that the exponential decay is
negligible after five time constants.

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Example 4.8 P 189

PROBLEM: Find the step response of each of the transfer
functions shown in below and compare them.

SOLUTION: The step response, Ci(s), for the transfer function,

Ti(s), can be found by multiplying the transfer function by 1/S, a
step input, and using partial-fraction expansion
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Example 4.8 P 189

the results are

The three responses are plotted

below. Notice that c2(t), with its
third pole at -10 and farthest
from the dominant poles, is the
better approximation of c1(t),

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4.8 System Response With Zeros

Now that we have seen the effect of an additional pole, let us
add a zero to the second-order system.
Starting with a two-pole system with poles at (-1 j2.828), we
consecutively add zeros at - 3 , - 5 , and -10.
The results, are plotted below
We can see that the closer the
zero is to the dominant poles, the
greater its effect on the transient
response. As the zero moves
away from the dominant poles,
the response approaches that of
the two-pole system.
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4.10 Laplace Transform Solution of

State Equations
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of the state equation yields

Taking the Laplace transform of the output equation yields

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Eigenvalues and Transfer Function

Poles
We have

The roots of denominator are the poles of the

system
The system poles = eigenvalues= det(sI - A) = 0.

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Example 4.11 P. 200

PROBLEM: Given the system represented in state space

do the following:
a. Solve the preceding state equation and obtain the output for the
given exponential input.
b. Find the eigenvalues and the system poles.

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Example 4.11 P. 200

SOLUTION:

we have

then
Since

U(s) (the Laplace transform for ) is 1/(s + 1), X(s) can be calculated.

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Example 4.11 P. 200

The output equation is found

b. The denominator of Eq., which is det(sI - A), is also the denominator

of the system's transfer function. Thus, det(.sl - A) = 0 furnishes both the
poles of the system and the eigenvalues - 2 , - 3, and -4.

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4.11 Time Domain Solution of State

Equations
We now look at another technique for solving the state
equations. Rather than using the Laplace transform, we solve the
equations directly in the time domain using a method closely
allied to the classical solution of differential equations.
We have
Homogenous

Forcing

Need to solve the Homogenous part first

From Diff. Eq.

OR
x(0)

sx(s)-x(0)=Ax(s)

Where : State transition matrix (represent the free response of the system
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4.11 Time Domain Solution of State

Equations

Where : State transition matrix, The state-transition

matrix is defined as a matrix that satisfies the linear
homogeneous state equation.

Because

the state-transition matrix satisfies the

homogeneous state equation, it represents the free response
of the system. In other words, it governs the response that is
excited by the initial conditions only
the state-transition matrix completely defines the transition
of the states from the initial time t = 0 to any time t when the
inputs are zero.
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4.11 Time Domain Solution of State

Equations
Now
we can solve the whole State Eq. (State
transition Eq.)

We have
Taking the Laplace inverse

Natural
Zero Input
Response

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Forced
Zero State
Response

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Example 4.12 P 204

PROBLEM: For the state equation and initial state vector shown
below, where u(t) is a unit step, find the state-transition matrix and
then solve for x(t).

SOLUTION: Since the state equation is in the form

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Example 4.12 P 204

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Example 4.12 P 204

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Example
Consider the state equation

The

problem is to determine the state-transition matrix and the state

vector x(t) for t > 0 when the input is u(t) = 1 for t > 0.
Solution: The coefficient matrices are identified to be

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Example

The state-transition matrix of A is found by taking the inverse Laplace

transform of above eq.

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Example
The state-transition equation for t > 0 is obtained;

OR

As an alternative, the second term of the state-transition equation can be

obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform of (sI- ABU(s).

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