CSE 326: Data Structures

Part 8
Graphs
Henry Kautz
Autumn Quarter 2002
 Outline
• Graphs (TO DO: READ WEISS CH 9)
• Graph Data Structures
• Graph Properties
• Topological Sort
• Graph Traversals
– Depth First Search
– Breadth First Search
– Iterative Deepening Depth First
• Shortest Path Problem
– Dijkstra’s Algorithm
 Graph ADT
Graphs are a formalism for representing
relationships between objects
– a graph G is represented as Han
G = (V, E) Luke
• V is a set of vertices
• E is a set of edges Leia
V = {Han, Leia, Luke}
E = {(Luke, Leia),
– operations include:
(Han, Leia),
• iterating over vertices (Leia, Han)}
• iterating over edges
• iterating over vertices adjacent to a specific vertex
• asking whether an edge exists connected two vertices
What Graph is THIS?
 ReferralWeb
(co-authorship in scientific papers)
Biological Function Semantic Network
 Graph Representation 1:
Adjacency Matrix
A |V| x |V| array in which an element (u, v)
is true if and only if there is an edge from u to v
Han Luke Leia
Han Han
Luke
Luke
Leia
Runtime: Leia
iterate over vertices
iterate ever edges
iterate edges adj. to vertex Space requirements:
edge exists?
 Graph Representation 2:
Adjacency List
A |V|-ary list (array) in which each entry stores a
list (linked list) of all adjacent vertices

Han Han
Luke
Luke
Leia
Runtime: Leia
iterate over vertices
iterate ever edges
iterate edges adj. to vertex space requirements:
edge exists?
 Directed vs. Undirected Graphs
• In directed graphs, edges have a specific direction:
Han Luke

Leia
• In undirected graphs, they don’t (edges are two-way):
Han Luke

Leia
• Vertices u and v are adjacent if (u, v) ∈ E
 Graph Density
A sparse graph has O(|V|) edges

A dense graph has Θ (|V|2) edges

Anything in between is either sparsish or densy depending on the context.

 Weighted Graphs
Each edge has an associated weight or cost.

Clinton 20
Mukilteo

Kingston 30
Edmonds

Bainbridge 35
Seattle
60
Bremerton
There may be more
information in the graph as well.
 Paths and Cycles
A path is a list of vertices {v1, v2, …, vn} such that
(vi, vi+1 ) ∈ E for all 0 ≤ i < n.
A cycle is a path that begins and ends at the same node.

Chicago
Seattle

Salt Lake City

San Francisco
Dallas
p = {Seattle, Salt Lake City, Chicago, Dallas, San Francisco, Seattle}
 Path Length and Cost
Path length: the number of edges in the path
Path cost: the sum of the costs of each edge
3.5 Chicago
Seattle
2 2

2 Salt Lake City

2.5
2.5 2.5

3
San Francisco
Dallas
length(p) = 5 cost(p) = 11.5
 Connectivity
Undirected graphs are connected if there is a path between
any two vertices

Directed graphs are strongly connected if there is a path from

any one vertex to any other

Directed graphs are weakly connected if there is a path

between any two vertices, ignoring direction

A complete graph has an edge between every pair of vertices

 Trees as Graphs
• Every tree is a graph with A
some restrictions:
– the tree is directed B C
– there are no cycles (directed
or undirected) D E F
– there is a directed path from
the root to every node BAD! G H

I J
Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs)
DAGs are directed
main()
graphs with no
cycles.
mult()
if program call
add()
graph is a DAG,
then all
procedure calls read()
can be in-lined access()

Trees ⊂ DAGs ⊂ Graphs

 Application of DAGs:
Representing Partial Orders
reserve
check in flight call
airport taxi

pack
take bags
flight

locate
taxi to gate
airport
 Topological Sort
Given a graph, G = (V, E), output all the vertices
in V such that no vertex is output before any other
vertex with an edge to it.

reserve check in
flight airport
call
taxi take
taxi to flight
airport locate
pack gate
bags
 Topo-Sort Take One
Label each vertex’s in-degree (# of inbound edges)
While there are vertices remaining
Pick a vertex with in-degree of zero and output it
Reduce the in-degree of all vertices adjacent to it
Remove it from the list of vertices

runtime:
 Topo-Sort Take Two
Label each vertex’s in-degree
Initialize a queue (or stack) to contain all in-degree zero
vertices
While there are vertices remaining in the queue
Remove a vertex v with in-degree of zero and output it
Reduce the in-degree of all vertices adjacent to v
Put any of these with new in-degree zero on the queue

runtime:
 Recall: Tree Traversals
a

b c d e

h i j
f g

k l

abfgkcdhilje
 Depth-First Search
• Pre/Post/In – order traversals are examples of
depth-first search
– Nodes are visited deeply on the left-most branches
before any nodes are visited on the right-most branches
• Visiting the right branches deeply before the left would still be
depth-first! Crucial idea is “go deep first!”
• Difference in pre/post/in-order is how some computation (e.g.
printing) is done at current node relative to the recursive calls
• In DFS the nodes “being worked on” are kept on
a stack
 Iterative Version DFS
Pre-order Traversal

Push root on a Stack

Repeat until Stack is empty:
Pop a node
Process it
Push it’s children on the Stack
 Level-Order Tree Traversal
• Consider task of traversing tree level by level from top to
bottom (alphabetic order)
• Is this also DFS? a

b c d e

h i j
f g

k l
 Breadth-First Search
• No! Level-order traversal is an example of Breadth-First
Search
• BFS characteristics
– Nodes being worked on maintained in a FIFO Queue, not a stack
– Iterative style procedures often easier to design than recursive
procedures
Put root in a Queue
Repeat until Queue is empty:
Dequeue a node
Process it
Add it’s children to queue
 QUEUE
a
bcde a
cdefg
defg
b c d e
efghij
fghij
ghij h i j
f g
hijk
ijk
jkl k l
kl
l
 Graph Traversals
• Depth first search and breadth first search also work for
arbitrary (directed or undirected) graphs
– Must mark visited vertices so you do not go into an infinite loop!
• Either can be used to determine connectivity:
– Is there a path between two given vertices?
– Is the graph (weakly) connected?
• Important difference: Breadth-first search always finds a
shortest path from the start vertex to any other (for
unweighted graphs)
– Depth first search may not!
Demos on Web Page

DFS
BFS
Is BFS the Hands Down Winner?
• Depth-first search
– Simple to implement (implicit or explict stack)
– Does not always find shortest paths
– Must be careful to “mark” visited vertices, or you could
go into an infinite loop if there is a cycle
• Breadth-first search
– Simple to implement (queue)
– Always finds shortest paths
– Marking visited nodes can improve efficiency, but even
without doing so search is guaranteed to terminate
 Space Requirements
Consider space required by the stack or queue…
• Suppose
– G is known to be at distance d from S
– Each vertex n has k out-edges
– There are no (undirected or directed) cycles
• BFS queue will grow to size kd
– Will simultaneously contain all nodes that are at
distance d (once last vertex at distance d-1 is expanded)
– For k=10, d=15, size is 1,000,000,000,000,000
 DFS Space Requirements
• Consider DFS, where we limit the depth of the search
to d
– Force a backtrack at d+1
– When visiting a node n at depth d, stack will contain
• (at most) k-1 siblings of n
• parent of n
• siblings of parent of n
• grandparent of n
• siblings of grandparent of n …
• DFS queue grows at most to size dk
– For k=10, d=15, size is 150
– Compare with BFS 1,000,000,000,000,000
 Conclusion
• For very large graphs – DFS is hugely more
memory efficient, if we know the distance to the
goal vertex!
• But suppose we don’t know d. What is the
(obvious) strategy?
 Iterative Deepening DFS
IterativeDeepeningDFS(vertex s, g){
for (i=1;true;i++)
if DFS(i, s, g) return;
}
// Also need to keep track of path found
bool DFS(int limit, vertex s, g){
if (s==g) return true;
if (limit-- <= 0) return false;
for (n in children(s))
if (DFS(limit, n, g)) return true;
return false;
}
 Analysis of Iterative Deepening
• Even without “marking” nodes as visited, iterative-
deepening DFS never goes into an infinite loop
– For very large graphs, memory cost of keeping track of
visited vertices may make marking prohibitive
• Work performed with limit < actual distance to G is
wasted – but the wasted work is usually small
compared to amount of work done during the last
iteration
 Asymptotic Analysis
• There are “pathological” graphs for which iterative
deepening is bad:

n=d

S G

Iterative Deepening DFS =

1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = O (n 2 )
BFS = O (n)
 A Better Case
Suppose each vertex n has k out-edges, no cycles

• Bounded DFS to level i reaches ki vertices

• Iterative Deepening DFS(d) =

d

∑ k = O (k )
i =1
i d ignore low order terms!

d
BFS = O( k )
 (More) Conclusions
• To find a shortest path between two nodes in a
unweighted graph, use either BFS or Iterated DFS

• If the graph is large, Iterated DFS typically uses

much less memory

– Later we’ll learn about heuristic search algorithms,

which use additional knowledge about the problem
domain to reduce the number of vertices visited
 Single Source, Shortest Path for
Weighted Graphs
Given a graph G = (V, E) with edge costs c(e),
and a vertex s ∈ V, find the shortest (lowest
cost) path from s to every vertex in V

• Graph may be directed or undirected

• Graph may or may not contain cycles
• Weights may be all positive or not
• What is the problem if graph contains cycles
whose total cost is negative?
 The Trouble with
Negative Weighted Cycles

2
A B 10
-5 1 E
2
C D
 Edsger Wybe Dijkstra
(1930-2002)

• Invented concepts of structured programming,

synchronization, weakest precondition, and "semaphores"
for controlling computer processes. The Oxford English
Dictionary cites his use of the words "vector" and "stack" in
a computing context.
• Believed programming should be taught without computers
• 1972 Turing Award
• “In their capacity as a tool, computers will be but a ripple
on the surface of our culture. In their capacity as intellectual
challenge, they are without precedent in the cultural history
of mankind.”
 Dijkstra’s Algorithm for
Single Source Shortest Path
• Classic algorithm for solving shortest path in
weighted graphs (with only positive edge weights)
• Similar to breadth-first search, but uses a priority
queue instead of a FIFO queue:
– Always select (expand) the vertex that has a lowest-
cost path to the start vertex
– a kind of “greedy” algorithm
• Correctly handles the case where the lowest-cost
(shortest) path to a vertex is not the one with
fewest edges
 Pseudocode for Dijkstra
Initialize the cost of each vertex to ∞
cost[s] = 0;
heap.insert(s);
While (! heap.empty())
n = heap.deleteMin()
For (each vertex a which is adjacent to n along edge e)
if (cost[n] + edge_cost[e] < cost[a]) then
cost [a] = cost[n] + edge_cost[e]
previous_on_path_to[a] = n;
if (a is in the heap) then heap.decreaseKey(a)
else heap.insert(a)
 Important Features
• Once a vertex is removed from the head, the cost
of the shortest path to that node is known
• While a vertex is still in the heap, another shorter
path to it might still be found
• The shortest path itself from s to any node a can
be found by following the pointers stored in
previous_on_path_to[a]
Dijkstra’s Algorithm in Action
2 2
B 3
A F H
1
1 2
4 10 1
9
4 G
2 C 8
D 1
E
7
vertex known cost
A
B
C
D
E
F
 Demo

Dijkstra’s
 Data Structures
for Dijkstra’s Algorithm
|V| times:
Select the unknown node with the lowest cost

findMin/deleteMin
O(log |V|)
|E| times:
a’s cost = min(a’s old cost, …)

decreaseKey O(log |V|)

runtime: O(|E| log |V|)

CSE 326: Data Structures
Lecture 8.B
Heuristic Graph Search
Henry Kautz
Winter Quarter 2002
 Homework Hint - Problem 4
(a + b) mod p = ( a mod p + b mod p ) mod p
final mod in case sum is > p
(c(a mod p)) mod p = (ca) mod p
Let β (bk bk −1bk −2 ...b1 ) be the interpretation of a bit string
as a binary number. Then:
β (bk bk −1bk −2 ...b1 ) = bk 2 k −1 + β (bk −1bk − 2 ...b1 )

You can turn in a final version of your answer to

problem 4 without penalty on Wednesday.
 Outline
• Best First Search
• A* Search
• Example: Plan Synthesis

• This material is NOT in Weiss, but is important

for both the programming project and the final
exam!
 Huge Graphs
• Consider some really huge graphs…
– All cities and towns in the World Atlas
– All stars in the Galaxy
– All ways 10 blocks can be stacked
Huh???
 Implicitly Generated Graphs
• A huge graph may be implicitly specified by rules for
generating it on-the-fly
• Blocks world:
– vertex = relative positions of all blocks
– edge = robot arm stacks one block

stack(blue,table)
stack(green,blue)

stack(blue,red)

stack(green,red)
stack(green,blue)
 Blocks World
• Source = initial state of the blocks
• Goal = desired state of the blocks
• Path source to goal = sequence of actions
(program) for robot arm!
• n blocks ≈ nn vertices
• 10 blocks ≈ 10 billion vertices!
 Problem: Branching Factor
• Cannot search such huge graphs exhaustively.
Suppose we know that goal is only d steps away.
• Dijkstra’s algorithm is basically breadth-first
search (modified to handle arc weights)
• Breadth-first search (or for weighted graphs,
Dijkstra’s algorithm) – If out-degree of each node
is 10, potentially visits 10d vertices
– 10 step plan = 10 billion vertices visited!
 An Easier Case
• Suppose you live in Manhattan; what do you do?

52nd St
S

51st St G

50th St
10th Ave

9th Ave

8th Ave

2nd Ave
3rd Ave
7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave
 Best-First Search
• The Manhattan distance (∆ x+ ∆ y) is an
estimate of the distance to the goal
– a heuristic value
• Best-First Search
– Order nodes in priority to minimize estimated distance
to the goal h(n)
• Compare: BFS / Dijkstra
– Order nodes in priority to minimize distance from the
start
 Best First in Action
• Suppose you live in Manhattan; what do you do?

52nd St
S

51st St G

50th St
10th Ave

9th Ave

8th Ave

2nd Ave
3rd Ave
7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave
 Problem 1: Led Astray
• Eventually will expand vertex to get back on the
right track

S
52nd St G

51st St

50th St
10th Ave

9th Ave

8th Ave

2nd Ave
3rd Ave
7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave
 Problem 2: Optimality
• With Best-First Search, are you guaranteed a
shortest path is found when
– goal is first seen?
– when goal is removed from priority queue (as with
Dijkstra?)
 Sub-Optimal Solution
• No! Goal is by definition at distance 0: will be
removed from priority queue immediately, even if
a shorter path exists!
(5 blocks)

52nd St S
h=5 h=2

51st St h=4 G h=1

9th Ave

8th Ave

7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave
 Synergy?
• Dijkstra / Breadth First guaranteed to find optimal
solution
• Best First often visits far fewer vertices, but may
not provide optimal solution

– Can we get the best of both?

 A* (“A star”)
• Order vertices in priority queue to minimize
(distance from start) + (estimated distance to goal)

f(n) = g(n) + h(n)

f(n) = priority of a node

g(n) = true distance from start
h(n) = heuristic distance to goal
 Optimality
• Suppose the estimated distance (h) is
always less than or equal to the true distance to the
goal
– heuristic is a lower bound on true distance

• Then: when the goal is removed from the priority

queue, we are guaranteed to have found a shortest
path!
 Problem 2 Revisited
vertex g(n) h(n) f(n)
(5 blocks)
52nd St S
52nd & 9th 0 5 5

51st St G

50th St
9th Ave

8th Ave

7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave
 Problem 2 Revisited
vertex g(n) h(n) f(n)
(5 blocks)
52nd St S
52nd & 4th 5 2 7

G 51st & 9th 1 4 5

51 St
st

50th St
9th Ave

8th Ave

7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave
 Problem 2 Revisited
vertex g(n) h(n) f(n)
(5 blocks)
52nd St S
52nd & 4th 5 2 7

G 51st & 8th 2 3 5

51 St
st

50th & 9th 2 5 7

50th St
9th Ave

8th Ave

7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave
 Problem 2 Revisited
vertex g(n) h(n) f(n)
(5 blocks)
52nd St S
52nd & 4th 5 2 7

G 51st & 7th 3 2 5

51 St
st

50th & 9th 2 5 7

50th St
50th & 8th 3 4 7
9th Ave

8th Ave

7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave
 Problem 2 Revisited
vertex g(n) h(n) f(n)
(5 blocks)
52nd St S
52nd & 4th 5 2 7

G 51st & 6th 4 1 5

51 St
st

50th & 9th 2 5 7

50th St
50th & 8th 3 4 7

50th & 7th 4 3 7

9th Ave

8th Ave

7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave
 Problem 2 Revisited
vertex g(n) h(n) f(n)
(5 blocks)
52nd St S
52nd & 4th 5 2 7

G 51st & 5th 5 0 5

51 St
st

50th & 9th 2 5 7

50th St
50th & 8th 3 4 7

50th & 7th 4 3 7

9th Ave

8th Ave

7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave
 Problem 2 Revisited
vertex g(n) h(n) f(n)
(5 blocks)
52nd St S
52nd & 4th 5 2 7

G 50th & 9th 2 5 7

51 St
st

50th & 8th 3 4 7

50th St
50th & 7th 4 3 7
9th Ave

8th Ave

7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave

DONE!
 What Would Dijkstra Have
Done?
(5 blocks)
52nd St S

51st St G

50th St

49th St

48th St

47th St
9th Ave

8th Ave

7th Ave

6th Ave

5th Ave

4th Ave
 Proof of A* Optimality
• A* terminates when G is popped from the heap.
• Suppose G is popped but the path found isn’t optimal:
priority(G) > optimal path length c
• Let P be an optimal path from S to G, and let N be the last
vertex on that path that has been visited but not yet popped.
There must be such an N, otherwise the optimal path would have been
found.
priority(N) = g(N) + h(N) ≤ c
• So N should have popped before G can pop. Contradiction.
non-optimal path to G
S G

portion of optimal undiscovered portion

path found so far
N of shortest path
 What About Those Blocks?
• “Distance to goal” is not always physical distance
• Blocks world:
– distance = number of stacks to perform
– heuristic lower bound = number of blocks out of place

# out of place = 2, true distance to goal = 3

3-Blocks State
Space Graph
ABC
h=2

A A B B C C
BC CB AC CA AB BA
h=1 h=2 h=2 h=1 h=3 h=3

C B C A B A
A A B B C C
B C A C A B
h=3 h=2 h=3 h=0 h=3 h=3

start goal
3-Blocks
Best First
Solution ABC
h=2

A A B B C C
BC CB AC CA AB BA
h=1 h=2 h=2 h=1 h=3 h=3

C B C A B A
A A B B C C
B C A C A B
h=3 h=2 h=3 h=0 h=3 h=3

start goal
3-Blocks BFS
Solution
ABC
h=2
expanded, but not
in solution

A A B B C C
BC CB AC CA AB BA
h=1 h=2 h=2 h=1 h=3 h=3

C B C A B A
A A B B C C
B C A C A B
h=3 h=2 h=3 h=0 h=3 h=3

start goal
3-Blocks A*
Solution
ABC
h=2
expanded, but not
in solution

A A B B C C
BC CB AC CA AB BA
h=1 h=2 h=2 h=1 h=3 h=3

C B C A B A
A A B B C C
B C A C A B
h=3 h=2 h=3 h=0 h=3 h=3

start goal
 Other Real-World Applications
• Routing finding – computer networks, airline
route planning
• VLSI layout – cell layout and channel routing
• Production planning – “just in time” optimization
• Protein sequence alignment
• Many other “NP-Hard” problems
– A class of problems for which no exact polynomial
time algorithms exist – so heuristic search is the best
we can hope for
 Coming Up
• Other graph problems
– Connected components
– Spanning tree
CSE 326: Data Structures
Part 8.C
Spanning Trees and More
Henry Kautz
Autumn Quarter 2002
 Today
• Incremental hashing
• MazeRunner project
• Longest Path?
• Finding Connected Components
– Application to machine vision
• Finding Minimum Spanning Trees
– Yet another use for union/find
 Incremental Hashing
 n n −i 
h(a1...an ) =  ∑ c ai  % p
 i =1 
 n +1 n +1−i   n

h(a2 ...an +1 ) =  ∑ c ai  % p =  an +1 + ∑ c n +1− i
ai  % p
 i =2   i=2 
 n

=  an +1 − c a1 + c a1 + ∑ c
n −1 n −1 n +1−i
ai  % p
 i =2 
 n

=  an +1 − c a1 + c ∑ c ai  % p
n −1 n −i

 i =1 
  n n −i  
=  an +1 % p − c a1 % p + c  ∑ c ai  % p  % p
n −1

  i =1  
( )
= an +1 − c n −1a1 + ch(a1...an ) % p
20 15
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
|* |
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
+-+-+-+-+ +-+ +-+ +-+ +-+-+ +-+-+-+-+-+-+
Maze Runner
| | | | | | | | | | | |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ + + + + + + +-+ +
|X | | | | | |
+-+ + +-+-+ +-+-+-+ +-+ +-+ +-+-+-+-+-+-+
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
•DFS, iterated DFS, BFS,
+ + + + + + + + + +-+ + + +-+ + + +-+ +-+
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | best-first, A*
+-+-+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +-+ + + + +
| | | | | | | | |
+ + + +-+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
|
•Crufty old C++ code from
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +-+-+-+-+ +-+
fresh clean Java code
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ + + + + + + + + + +-+ +-+-+ + + +-+-+ +
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
•Win fame and glory by
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
writing a nice real-time maze
+ + + + + + + + + + +-+ +-+-+-+-+ +-+-+-+
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
visualizer
+ + + + +-+ +-+ + + + + +-+ + +-+ + + + +
| | | | | | | | | | | |
+ + +-+-+-+-+ +-+ +-+-+-+ +-+-+ +-+ +-+ +
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +-+ +
| | | |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
 Java Note
Java lacks enumerated constants…
enum {DOG, CAT, MOUSE} animal;
animal a = DOG;
Static constants not type-safe…
static final int DOG = 1;
static final int CAT = 2;
static final int BLUE = 1;
int favoriteColor = DOG;
 Amazing Java Trick
public final class Animal {
private Animal() {}
public static final Animal DOG = new Animal();
public static final Animal CAT = new Animal();
}
public final class Color {
private Color() {}
public static final Animal BLUE = new Color();
}
Animal x = DOG;
Animal x = BLUE; // Gives compile-time error!
 Longest Path Problem
• Given a graph G=(V,E) and vertices s, t
• Find a longest simple path (no repeating vertices)
from s to t.
• Does “reverse Dijkstra” work?
 Dijkstra
Initialize the cost of each vertex to ∞
cost[s] = 0;
heap.insert(s);
While (! heap.empty())
n = heap.deleteMin()
For (each vertex a which is adjacent to n along edge e)
if (cost[n] + edge_cost[e] < cost[a]) then
cost [a] = cost[n] + edge_cost[e]
previous_on_path_to[a] = n;
if (a is in the heap) then heap.decreaseKey(a)
else heap.insert(a)
 Reverse Dijkstra
Initialize the cost of each vertex to ∞
cost[s] = 0;
heap.insert(s);
While (! heap.empty())
n = heap.deleteMax()
For (each vertex a which is adjacent to n along edge e)
if (cost[n] + edge_cost[e] > cost[a]) then
cost [a] = cost[n] + edge_cost[e]
previous_on_path_to[a] = n;
if (a is in the heap) then heap.increaseKey(a)
else heap.insert(a)
 Does it Work?

a 6
t

3 5

b
s 1
 Problem
• No clear stopping condition!
• How many times could a vertex be inserted in the
priority queue?
– Exponential!
– Not a “good” algorithm!
• Is the better one?
 Counting Connected
Components

Initialize the cost of each vertex to ∞

Num_cc = 0
While there are vertices of cost ∞ {
Pick an arbitrary such vertex S, set its cost to 0
Find paths from S
Num_cc ++ }
 Using DFS

Set each vertex to “unvisited”

Num_cc = 0
While there are unvisited vertices {
Pick an arbitrary such vertex S
Perform DFS from S, marking vertices as visited
Num_cc ++ }

Complexity = O(|V|+|E|)
 Using Union / Find

Put each node in its own equivalence class

Num_cc = 0
For each edge E = <x,y>
Union(x,y)
Return number of equivalence classes

Complexity =
 Using Union / Find

Put each node in its own equivalence class

Num_cc = 0
For each edge E = <x,y>
Union(x,y)
Return number of equivalence classes

Complexity = O(|V|+|E| ack(|E|,|V|))

Machine Vision: Blob Finding
Machine Vision: Blob Finding

2
5
3
4
 Blob Finding
• Matrix can be considered an efficient
representation of a graph with a very regular
structure
• Cell = vertex
• Adjacent cells of same color = edge between
vertices
• Blob finding = finding connected components
 Tradeoffs
• Both DFS and Union/Find approaches are
(essentially) O(|E|+|V|) = O(|E|) for binary images
• For each component, DFS (“recursive labeling”)
can move all over the image – entire image must
be in main memory
• Better in practice: row-by-row processing
– localizes accesses to memory
– typically 1-2 orders of magnitude faster!
 High-Level Blob-Labeling
• Scan through image left/right and top/bottom

• If a cell is same color as (connected to) cell to

right or below, then union them

• Give the same blob number to cells in each

equivalence class
 Blob-Labeling Algorithm
Put each cell <x,y> in it’s own equivalence class
For each cell <x,y>
if color[x,y] == color[x+1,y] then
Union( <x,y>, <x+1,y> )
if color[x,y] == color[x,y+1] then
Union( <x,y>, <x,y+1> )
label = 0
For each root <x,y>
blobnum[x,y] = ++ label;
For each cell <x,y>
blobnum[x,y] = blobnum( Find(<x,y>) )
 Spanning Tree
Spanning tree: a subset of the edges from a connected graph
that…
… touches all vertices in the graph (spans the graph)
… forms a tree (is connected and contains no cycles)

4 7
9
2
1 5

Minimum spanning tree: the spanning tree with the least total
edge cost.
 Applications of Minimal
Spanning Trees
• Communication networks

• VLSI design

• Transportation systems
 Kruskal’s Algorithm for
Minimum Spanning Trees
A greedy algorithm:

Initialize all vertices to unconnected

While there are still unmarked edges
Pick a lowest cost edge e = (u, v) and mark it
If u and v are not already connected, add e to the
minimum spanning tree and connect u and v

Sound familiar?
(Think maze generation.)
Kruskal’s Algorithm in Action (1/5)
2 2 3
A B F H
1 2
4 10 1
9
G
C 4
2 8
D
E
7
Kruskal’s Algorithm in Action (2/5)
2 2 3
A B F H
1 2
4 10 1
9
G
C 4
2 8
D
E
7
Kruskal’s Algorithm in Action (3/5)
2 2 3
A B F H
1 2
4 10 1
9
G
C 4
2 8
D
E
7
Kruskal’s Algorithm in Action (4/5)
2 2 3
A B F H
1 2
4 10 1
9
G
C 4
2 8
D
E
7
Kruskal’s Algorithm Completed (5/5)
2 2 3
A B F H
1 2
4 10 1
9
G
C 4
2 8
D
E
7
 Why Greediness Works
Proof by contradiction that Kruskal’s finds a minimum
spanning tree:
• Assume another spanning tree has lower cost than
Kruskal’s.
• Pick an edge e1 = (u, v) in that tree that’s not in
Kruskal’s.
• Consider the point in Kruskal’s algorithm where u’s set and
v’s set were about to be connected. Kruskal selected some
edge to connect them: call it e2 .
• But, e2 must have at most the same cost as e1 (otherwise
Kruskal would have selected it instead).
• So, swap e2 for e1 (at worst keeping the cost the same)
• Repeat until the tree is identical to Kruskal’s, where the
cost is the same or lower than the original cost:
contradiction!
 Data Structures
for Kruskal’s Algorithm
|E| times: Once:
Initialize heap of edges…
Pick the lowest cost edge…

buildHeap

findMin/deleteMin
|E| times:
If u and v are not already connected…
…connect u and v.
union

runtime: |E| + |E| log |E| + |E| ack(|E|,|V|)

 Data Structures
for Kruskal’s Algorithm
|E| times: Once:
Initialize heap of edges…
Pick the lowest cost edge…

buildHeap

findMin/deleteMin
|E| times:
If u and v are not already connected…
…connect u and v.
union

runtime: |E| + |E| log |E| + |E| ack(|E|,|V|) = O(|E|log|E|)

 Prim’s Algorithm
• Can also find Minimum Spanning Trees using a
variation of Dijkstra’s algorithm:
Pick a initial node
Until graph is connected:
Choose edge (u,v) which is of minimum cost
among edges where u is in tree but v is not
Add (u,v) to the tree
• Same “greedy” proof, same asymptotic
complexity
 Coming Up
• Application: Sentence Disambiguation
• All-pairs Shortest Paths
• NP-Complete Problems
• Advanced topics
– Quad trees
– Randomized algorithms
 Sentence Disambiguation
• A person types a message on their cell phone
keypad. Each button can stand for three different
letter (e.g. “1” is a, b, or c), but the person does not
explicitly indicate which letter is meant. (Words are
separated by blanks – the “0” key.)
• Problem: How can the system determine what
sentence was typed?
– My Nokia cell phone does this!
• How can this problem be cast as a shortest-path
problem?
 Sentence Disambiguation as
Shortest Path
Idea:
• Possible words are vertices
• Directed edge between adjacent possible words
• Weight on edge from W1 to W2 is probability that
W2 appears adjacent to W1
– Probabilities over what?! Some large archive (corpus)
of text
– “Word bi-gram” model
• Find the most probable path through the graph
W11 W 12 W 13

W 21 W 23

W 22

W
W3111 W 33

W 41 W 43
 Technical Concerns
• Isn’t “most probable” actually longest (most
heavily weighted) path?!

• Shouldn’t we be multiplying probabilities, not

adding them?!

P (# w1w2 w3 #) ≈ P ( w1 | #) P ( w2 | w1 ) P ( w3 | w2 ) P (# | w3 )
 Logs to the Rescue
• Make weight on edge fromW1 to W2 be
- log P(W2 | W1)
• Logs of probabilities are always negative
numbers, so take negative logs
• The lower the probability, the larger the negative
log! So this is shortest path
• Adding logs is the same as multiplying the
underlying quantities
 To Think About
• This really works in practice – 99% accuracy!

• Cell phone memory is limited – how can we use as

little storage as possible?

• How can the system customize itself to a user?

 Question
Which graph algorithm is asymptotically
better:
∀θ (|V||E|log|V|)

∀θ (|V|3)
 All Pairs Shortest Path
• Suppose you want to compute the length of the
shortest paths between all pairs of vertices in a
graph…
– Run Dijkstra’s algorithm (with priority queue)
repeatedly, starting with each node in the graph:

– Complexity in terms of V when graph is dense:

 Dynamic Programming
Approach
Dk ,i , j = distance from vi to v j that uses
only v1, v2 ,..., vk as intermediates
Note that path for Dk ,i , j either does not use vk ,
or merges the paths vi → vk and vk → v j
Dk ,i , j = min{Dk −1,i , j , Dk −1,i ,k + Dk −1, k , j }
 Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
// C – adjacency matrix representation of graph
// C[i][j] = weighted edge i->j or ∞ if none
// D – computed distances
FW(int n, int C [][], int D [][]){
for (i = 0; i < N; i++){
for (j = 0; j < N; j++) Run time =
D[i][j] = C[i][j];
D[i][i] = 0.0;
}
for (k = 0; k < N; k++) How could we
for (i = 0; i < N; i++)
compute the paths?
for (j = 0; j < N; j++)
if (D[i][k] + D[k][j] < D[i][j])
D[i][j] = D[i][k] + D[k][j];
}