Professional Documents
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(SCE)
1. Voltage dividers
R2
Vo
Vs
R1 R2
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Deflection bridges
Deflection bridges are used to convert the output of resistive,
capacitive and inductive sensors into a voltage signal
Amplifiers
Amplifiers are necessary in order to amplify low-level signals, e.g.
thermocouple
or strain gauge bridge output voltages, to a level which enables them
to be further
processed
Oscillators and resonators
Bridge Parameters
a. Range of output
1
1
Z4
Z3
1
1 Z
Z2
I min
V
S
Vmin
1
1
Z4
Z3
1
1 Z
Z2
I max
V
S
Vmax
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b. Sensitivity
Vout
Z
VS2
Z1
w
2
Z1 Z 4
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d. Non linearity
Vmax
Vmax
I -
I min
I max I min
I max I min
Videal
E th Videal
100 N
Vmax
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IMIN;
Case 1.
-utilizing a single active gage in position R1
- it is often employed for both static and dynamic strain-gage
measurement if temperature compensation is not required.
-The resistance R1 = Rg and the other three resistances are selected to
maximize the circuit sensitivity while maintaining the balance condition
R1R3 = R2R4.
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S s S g Sc
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R g R g
Vo
R R
g
g
Vo
13
14
Case 4.
- Four active gages are used in this Wheatstone bridge
arrangement: - - it is used to measure transverse and axial strain
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Thus in order to get :ETh = 0 at minimum level hMIN, we require C0 = ChMIN(R3 /R2),
giving:
if R3 /R2 is made large compared with 1, this approximates to the linear form:
This gives:
This gives:
Amplifiers
Inverting amplifier
Non-inverting amplifier
Also since V+ = V
we have
Voltage follower.
Differential amplifier
Instrumentation amplifier
High input impedance
High common mode rejection ratio
Low input offset voltage
Low temperature coefficient of offset voltage.
Voltage adder.
Where
AOL -D.C. open-loop gain
Some operational amplifiers have facilities for adjusting VOS to zero, i.e. for
obtaining VOUT = 0 when V+ = V = 0.
Instrumentation amplifiers
Capacitive Oscillators
resonator
Examples of resonators
Vibrating plate element
It follows that
and
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Therefore
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and
we have
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Logarithmic amplifiers
- When a sensors output dynamic is of a high amplitude (10 mV to 10 V, for
example), it can be useful to compress the signal by using a logarithmic amplifier.
- After amplification and digitization, the signal can be easily transmitted across a
transmission line.
At reception, it is enough to carry out the reverse operation to restore the
measurement signal.
This principle allows us to lower noise sensitivity.
- Logarithmic amplifiers also help us linearize sensors, carry out multiplications,
divisions, elevations in the square, and extractions of the root squared.
To construct this type of amplifier , we use the feature of a P-N junction with an
equation (Ebres-Moll equation) in the following form:
where
q is the electron charge
k the Boltzmanns constant
T is the absolute temperature
U is the direct voltage and i0 is the flow of reverse current
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