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GEOPHYSICS
Contents
What is geophysics?
Choice of method
Active and passive methods
Contacting and non-contacting
methods
Resolution and ambiguity
The need for ground truth
A typical survey
Basics of data handling
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WHAT IS GEOPHYSICS?
Equipment for an
integrated field
survey
What is geophysics?
Geophysics is the measurement of
physical properties at or above the
ground surface to reveal hidden
subsurface structure.
There are two broad divisions:
Exploration geophysics
Global geophysics
In this module we shall be concerned
with exploration geophysics
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What is geophysics?
Advantages of geophysics
Rapid and cheap survey tool
Easily integrated with other forms of
ground survey
Non-destructive (archaeology, habitats,
urban areas generally)
Modern processing methods give a visual
image of the subsurface
Disadvantages of geophysics
Can be ambiguous without controls
Poor discrimination in some cases
Can suffer from noise or artifacts ( )
What is geophysics?
Exploration geophysics involves collecting
data according to a defined survey pattern.
This may be along a line, around a polygon or
over an area.
The type of data is determined by the
purpose of the survey and by the expected
underground structure.
Typical data are:
Arrival times of seismic waves
Arrival times of high-frequency electrical
signals
Variations in the local magnetic field
Variations in local ground resistance
What is geophysics?
Some physical properties that are commonly used
are:
Elastic wave velocity (elasticity, density) = Seismic
methods
Electric pulse velocity (dielectric constant) =
Georadar (GPR)
Electrical DC resistance (resistivity) = DC resistivity
methods
Electrical AC conductivity = EM conductivity methods
Magnetic field strength (susceptibility) = Magnetic
methods
Gravity field strength (density) = Gravity methods
The value of the surface measurement is determined
by the contrast in the relevant property (hence
material type) and by the three dimensional structure
CHOICE OF METHOD
Choice of method
The user has considerable scope for
choice. However, some factors to be
considered are:
What type and shape of feature is
being imaged?
Is an area or line survey the better?
What physical properties will show the
best contrast?
Are there any strong but irrelevant
contrasts that will mask the results?
To what depth must the survey
penetrate?
What spatial resolution is needed?
What are the time or cost constraints?
Are there any special restrictions eg on
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Active methods
-hammer seismic
source
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Passive gravity
measurement
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Contacting
method -a seismic
geophone
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Contacting
method
multi-channel
geophone array
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Contacting
method
DC resistivity
(fixed electrode
spacing)
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Non-contacting methods are more rapid and therefore cheaper. Despite their
generally lower resolution, the results may still be adequate for the purpose in
hand.
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Non-contacting
method: airborne
magnetometer
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Non contacting:
the proton
magnetometer
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Non-contacting
method: ground
penetrating radar
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Non-contacting
method
A helicopter EM
survey
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Non-contacting
method:
hand-held EM
inductance coils
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Ground truth
In the geophysics context, ground truth
means:
Physical property measurements on
samples
Direct determination of the depth or
extent of an underground structure
Ground truth is necessary to overcome
both inherent ambiguity and to establish
the correct property values needed for
quantitative interpretation
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Ground truth
The relevant observations may be:
Measurements of density, seismic
velocity, magnetic susceptibility etc.
made on samples recovered from
boreholes
Field measurements of velocity made
from one or two boreholes
Determination of the geological
sequence at various positions, probably
linked to property measurements
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Laboratory
determination of
electrical
resistivity
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A TYPICAL SURVEY
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A typical survey
Most geophysical surveys on land follow a typical
pattern:
Basic survey of the site using aerial photos and
ground stations
Geophysical traverses between key locations,
usually borehole positions
Infill traverses to provide detail, perhaps after
primary interpretation
Ground truth from field or laboratory
measurements
The so-called Whistling Elk site (South Dakota,
USA) provides a good example of a small
archaeological site investigated using combined
geophysics.
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Composite interpretation
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What is geophysics?
There are four keys to the successful
use of all geophysical methods:
Using a method based on properties
that have good contrasts across
subsurface boundaries
Applying a processing technique that
will minimize the inevitable background
noise in the signal
Being able to relate the results to
known subsurface materials and
structure, usually via nearby boreholes
If possible, using two or more methods
in combination
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