Chapter 15: Fluid Motion

Fluids
Characteristics

of fluids

Microscopically molecules of a fluid do not have long-range

order. But liquids do have short-range order unlike gases
Fluids can flow and conform to the boundaries of a container
Fluids cannot sustain a shearing stress

Fluids (contd)
Some

useful quantities

Density for mass m ,volume V

m m

V V

for uniform solid or liquid

unit kg/m3 (at STP for a gas)

in SI unit

water 1.0 103 kg/m 3 ; air 1.2 kg/m 3

styrofoam 0.1103 kg/m 3 ; lead 11.35 103 kg/m 3
Pressure for area

F
dF
p

A A0 dA

and normal force F

unit pascal

Pa 1 N / 1 m 2

in SI unit

other useful units:

1 atm 1.01 105 Pa 760 torr 14.7 lb / in 2

height of a column of Hg corresponding to this pressure (mm)

Pressure
Pressure

of a liquid at rest (uniform density)

F1 p1 A
F2 p2 A

fluid level

y1
y2

F1 F2 ( y2 y1 ) gA 0

F1
F2

imaginary
box

mg A

weight of the imaginary box

p2 p1 ( y2 y1 ) g
hg

p2 p1 hg

mg

Pressure (contd)
Pressure

p0

of a fluid at rest : gauge pressure

atmospheric
pressure

gauge pressure:

fluid level

y1
y2

p2 p1 hg

p1 p0 p1

F1
F2

imaginary
box

mg A

gauge

p2 p0 p2

gauge

atmospheric pressure

A simple model for atmospheric pressure

Pressure of a gas at rest ( kp )
When

p2 p1 , y2 y1 0,

dp p2 p1 g ( y1 y2 ) gdy

dp gdy kpgdy

dp / dy kpg

p2 p1e

kg ( y2 y1 )

 Pressure

Barometer

measurement using a liquid:

(measures absolute pressure)
p0
From
as

atmospheric
p0 pressure

p2 p1 g ( y1 y2 )
p2 0, y2 h, p1 p0

p0 gh

If the liquid is mercury, for 1 atm :

p0 1 atm 101.3 103 Pa ,

Hg 13.6 103 kg/m 3 , g 9.83 m/s

h p0 / g 0.758 m 760 mm

Manometer
Pressure

measurement using a liquid :

(measures gauge pressure)

p2 p1 g ( y1 y2 )

p0

p2 p , y 2 h ,

level 1

pg

pg p p0 gh

h
level 2
liquid

tank
manometer

p1 p0 , y1 0

gauge pressure

Pascals law

incompressible

Pressure

applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted

undiminished to every portion of the fluid and walls
of the containing vessel
weight
piston
(area A)

p pext p0 gh

pressure at P

pext

w
liquid
P

pressure due atmospheric

to weight w: pressure
w/A

p pext

pressure due to
liquid above P

Pascals law (contd)

Hydraulic

lever

p F1 / A1 F2 / A2
F2 ( A2 / A1 ) F1

A2 / A1 1 F2 F1
x1

F1

x2

x1 A1 x2 A2 x2 ( A1 / A2 ) x1
A2

A1

W2 F2 x2 ( A2 / A1 ) F1 ( A1 / A2 ) x1

F2

F1x1 W1

Buoyancy
Origin

of buoyancy

Consider a submerged massless object filled with the same fluid

as the fluid that surrounds the object
The object is at rest

Fnet ( F2 F1 ) m f g 0
buoyancy

P1

F1
mf g

P2

F2

mass of fluid in the object

opposite dir.

buoyant force

Fb m f g

Now fill the object with another material

Fnet ( F2 F1 ) mobj g 0

Fb m f g

Buoyancy
Origin

of buoyancy (contd)

Consider a portion of fluid at rest in a container surrounded by an

imaginary boundary represented in dashed line.
Since the portion of the fluid defined by the surface in dashed line
is at rest, the net force on this portion due to pressure must be
equal to that of the weight of the fluid inside the surface, and
opposite in direction.

dF
dF

dF

Fnet dF mfluid g Fb fluidVg 0

dF

Fnet X

dF

mg
dF

dF
dF

Fb mfluid g fluidVg

buoyant force

The same argument can be applied when the

imaginary portion of the fluid is replaced by an
object that occupies the same space.

Buoyancy
Archimedess

principle

The buoyant force on a partly or completely submerged object

is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid:

Fnet Fb mobj g m f g mobj g

( f obj )Vg
If

f obj , Fnet 0
apparent weight

If

f obj , Fnet 0

Object sinks

W ( f obj )Vg mobj g

Object floats

The object will rise until a part of it comes out above the fluid
Surface when the average density increases to f

Example
What fraction of an iceberg is submerged in the sea water?
Lets assume that the total volume of the iceberg is Vi.
Then the weight of the iceberg Fgi is

Fgi iVi g

Lets then assume that the volume of the iceberg

submerged in the sea water is Vw. The buoyant force B
caused by the displaced water becomes

B wVw g

Since the whole system is at its

static equilibrium, we obtain
Therefore the fraction of the
volume of the iceberg
submerged under the surface of
the sea water is

iVi g wVw g
Vw
i
917 kg / m 3

0.890
3
Vi
w 1030kg / m

About 90% of the entire iceberg is submerged in the water!!!

Example
A fake or pure gold crown?
Is the crown made of pure
gold?
Tair =7.84 N
T mg 0
air

Twater mg B 0

Twater =6.86 N

Twater Tair B 0
B Tair Twater water gVwater
0.980 N
4

Vwater Vcrown 1.00 10 m

m Tair / g 0.800 kg

gold=19.3x103 kg/m3

crown m / Vcrown 8.00 103 kg/m 3

Example
Floating down the river
What depth h is the bottom of
the raft submerged?
wood=6.00x102 kg/m3

B mraft g 0 B mraft g

mraft g ( raftVraft ) g

B mwater g ( waterVwater ) g ( water Ah) g

( water Ah) g ( raftVraft ) g

raftVraft
h
0.0632 m
water A

A=5.70 m2

Density and Pressure

Example

Oil and water

P1 P0 gh1 1.01105 Pa
(7.00 10 2 kg/m 3 )(9.80 m/s 2 )
(8.00 m)
1.56 10 Pa
5

Pbot P1 gh2
2.06 105 Pa

=0.700 g/cm3
h1=8.00 m
=1025 kg/m3
h2=5.00 m

Ideal fluid flow

Ideal

fluids in motion

Incompressible ( density is constant at any position)

No internal friction (no viscosity)
Steady (non-turbulent) flow- the velocity at a point is
constant in time.
flow tube

flow line

: The path of an individual particle in a

moving fluid
steady flow: A flow whose pattern does not change
with time. Every element passing
through a given point follows the same
flow line
streamline : A curve whose tangent at any point is
in the direction of the fluid velocity at
that point
flow tube : The flow lines passing through the edge
of an imaginary area such as A
flow lines

Continuity equation
Continuity

equation I (incompressible fluid)

v2

The mass of a moving fluid does not change as it flows.

tub

The volume of the fluid that passes through

area A during a small time interval dt :

dV Avdt

flo
w

A2

v2dt

v1
dV / dt Av

A1

v1dt

dV1 A1v1dt ; dV2 A2v2dt

In an ideal fluid the density is constant.
In a time interval dt the mass that flows
into Area 1 is the same as the mass that
flows out of Area 2.

A1v1dt A2v2dt A1v1 A2v2

Continuity equation
v2

A2

Volume

flow rate

dV Avdt
v2dt

dV / dt Av

volume flow rate

Continuity

equation II
(compressible fluid)

v1

1 A1v1dt 2 A2v2dt 1 A1v1 2 A2v2

A1

v1dt

Bernoullis equation
Work

v2

dW p1 A1ds1 p2 A2ds2

F2 p2 A2

( p1 p2 )dV

dV

A2

v1
dV

A1

F1 p1 A1

done by pressure

Change

dK (1 / 2) dV ( v22 v12 )

ds2 v2dt
dV A1ds1 A2ds2

ds1 v1dt

y1

in kinetic energy

Change

in potential energy

dU dVg ( y2 y1 )

y2

Bernoullis equation
Energy conservation

dW dK dU
dW ( p1 p2 )dV
dK (1 / 2) dV ( v22 v12 )

dU dVg ( y2 y1 )

( p1 p2 )dV (1 / 2) dV (v22 v12 ) dVg ( y2 y1 )

p1 p2 (1 / 2) ( v22 v12 ) g ( y2 y1 )

p1 gy1 (1 / 2) v12 p2 gy2 (1 / 2) v22 const.

Example
Venturi meter
1 2
1
v1 p2 v22
2
2
A1
v2
v1
A2
p1

1 2 A12
p1 p2 v1 ( 2 1)
2
A2
p1 p2 gh
v1

2 gh
( A1 / A2 ) 2 1

 Torricellis theorem

Example

The velocity of the fluid coming out of a hole in a tank as

shown in the figure can be calculated using Bernoullis
equation.
At the top surface the velocity
of the fluid is zero. The pressures
at the top surface and at the hole
are the same, namely, the
atmospheric pressure.

2
2
ptop gytop (1 / 2) vtop
phole gyhole (1 / 2) vhole
2
g ( ytop yhole ) (1 / 2) vhole
vhole 2 gh

 Siphon

Example

Suppose a U-shaped piece of pipe is completely submerged in

water, filled with water, and then turned upside down under water.
As you slowly pull the top of the U-shaped piece of pipe out of
water, the water does not run out of the pipe. WHY?

 Siphon

Example

Suppose a U-shaped piece of pipe is completely submerged in

water, filled with water, and then turned upside down under water.
As you slowly pull the top of the U-shaped piece of pipe out of
water, the water does not run out of the pipe. WHY?

Air cannot enter the pipe. As the water starts running out of the pipe,
a near vacuum is created in the topmost region of the inverted U. The
pressure here drops to near zero. The atmospheric pressure on the
surface of the water in the bucket pushes the water into the U-shaped
pipe.

 Siphon

Example

If a U-shaped hose or pipe connects a liquid-filled container at a

higher altitude to a container at a lower altitude over a barrier, the
liquid can be siphoned into the container at the lower altitude.
Atmospheric pressure helps to push the liquid over the barrier.

 Siphon

Example

When P1>P2, the fluid can be siphoned from the left to the
right bucket.

 Water garden

Example

A water hose 2.50 cm in diameter is used by a gardener to fill a

30.0-liter bucket. The gardener notices that it takes 1.00 min to fill
the bucket. A nozzle with an opening of cross-sectional area 0.500
cm2 is then attached to the hose. The nozzle is held so that water
is projected horizontally from a point 1.00 m above the ground. Over
what horizontal distance can the water be projected?
30.0 L 1.00 103 cm 3

volume flow rate

1.00 min
1.00 L

1.00 m 1.00 min

3
3

5.00 10 m /s
100.0 cm 60.0 s

A1v1 A2 v2 A2 v0 x (v0 x : the x - component of the initial velocity)

A1v1 5.00 10 4 m 3 / s
v0 x

10.0 m/s
4
2
A2
0.500 10 m

y v0 y t

1 2
2t
2(1.00 m)
gt t

0.452 s; x v0 x t 4.52 m
2
2
g
9.80 m/s

 Example : A water tank

Consider a water tank with a hole.
(a) Find the speed of the water
leaving through the hole.

P0

h =0.500 m
y1 =3.00 m

1 2
v1 gy1 P0 gy2
2

v1 2 g ( y2 y1 ) 2 gh
3.13 m/s
(b) Find where the stream hits the ground.

1
y 0 y1 gt 2 v0 y t t 0.782 s
2

x v0 x t v1t 2.45 m

y
x

 Example : Fluid flow in a pipe

Find the speed at Point 1.

A1v1 A2 v2
v2

A2=1.00 m2
A1=0.500 m2
h =5.00 m

A1
v1
A2

1 2
1 2
P0 v1 gy1 P0 v2 gy2
2
2
2

P0

1 2
1 A
v1 gy1 P0 1 v1 gy2
2
2 A2

2 gh
A1
2
2 g ( y2 y1 ) 2 gh v1
v1 1
11.4 m/s
2

1 ( A1 / A2 )
A2

Viscosity and turbulence

Viscosity
Viscosity is internal friction in a fluid, and viscous forces oppose
the motion of one portion of a fluid relative to another.

Viscosity and turbulence

Drag
If a fluid in laminar flow flows around an obstacle, it exerts a viscous
drag on obstacle. Frictional forces accelerate the fluid backward
against the direction of flow and the obstacle forward in the direction
of flow.
adjacent layers of fluid slide
smoothly past each other and
flow is steady laminar flow

Viscosity and turbulence

Turbulence
When the speed of a flowing
fluid exceeds a certain critical
value the flow is no longer laminar.
The flow patter becomes extremely
irregular and complex, and it changes
continuously in time. There is no
steady flow pattern. This chaotic flow
Is called turbulence.

Problems
Problem 1
The upper edge of a gate in a dam runs
the water surface. The gate is 2.00 m high
and 4.00 m wide and is hinged along the
horizontal line through its center. Calculate
the torque about the hinge arising from
the force due to the water.

2.00 m
00
.
4

Solution
Denote the width and depth at the bottom of the gate by w and H.
The force on a strip of vertical thickness dh at a depth h is: dF gh(wdh)
and the torque about the hinge is d gwh( h H / 2)dh.
After integrating from h=0 to h=H, you get the torque:

gwH 3 / 12 2.61 104 N m.

Problem 2
An object with height h, mass M, and a uniform cross-sectional area A
floats upright in a liquid with density .
(a) Calculate the vertical distance from the surface of the liquid to the
bottom of the floating object in equilibrium.
(b) A downward force with magnitude F is applied to the top of the object.
At the new equilibrium position, how much farther below the surface of
the liquid is the bottom of the object than it was in part (a)?
(c) Calculate the period of the oscillation when the force F is suddenly
removed.

Solution
(a) From Archimedess principle gLA Mg , so L M /( A).
(b) The buoyant force is: gA( L x) Mg F . With the result of part (a) solving
for x gives: x F /( gA).
(c) The force is always in the direction toward the equilibrium, namely, a
restoring force Fres Fbuoy Mg gAx. Therefore the spring constant is
k gA and the period of the oscillation is T 2 M / k 2 M /( gA) .

Problem 3
You cast some metal of density m in a mold, but you are worried that there
might be cavities within the casting. You measure the weight of the casting
to be w, and the buoyant force when it is completely surrounded by water
V0 B /( water g ) w /( m g )
to be B. (a) Show that
is the total volume
of any enclosed cavities. (b) If your metal is copper, the castings weight
is 156 N, and the buoyant force is 20 N, what is the total volume of any
enclosed cavities in your casting? What fraction is this of the total volume
of the casting?

Solution

(a) Denote the total volume V. If the density of air is neglected, the buoyant
B water gV water g[( w / g ) / m V0 ]
force in terms of the weight is:
Therefore V0 B /( water g ) w /( m g ).
(b) B /( water g ) w /( Cu g ) 2.52 104 m3. The total volume of the casting is
B /( water g ), The cavities are 12.4% of the total volume.

Problem 4

A
A U-shaped tube with a horizontal portion of
length contains a liquid. What is the difference
in height between the liquid columns in the
vertical arms (a) if the tube has an acceleration
a toward the right? (b) if the tube is mounted on
a horizontal turntable rotating with an angular
speed with one of the vertical arms on the
axis of rotation?

Solutions

(a) Consider the fluid in the horizontal part of the tube. This fluid with mass
A , is subject to a net force due to the pressure difference between
the ends of the tube, which is the difference between the gauge pressures
at the bottoms of the ends of the tubes. Now this difference is g ( y L y R ),
and the net force on the horizontal part of the fluid is
g ( y L y R ) A Aa ,
or ( y L y R ) ( a / g ).
(b) Similarly to (a) consider the fluid in the horizontal part of the tube. As in (a)
the fluid is accelerating. The center of mass has a radial acceleration of
magnitude arad 2 / 2, so the difference in heights between the columns
is ( 2 / 2)( / g ) 22 /(2 g ).