DC Circuits:

Basic Concepts, Laws & Theorems

Content:
Basic Concepts.
Ohms Law.
Voltage & Current Division Rule.
Kirchhoffs Current Law.
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law.
Thevenins Theorem.
Nortons Theorem.
Source Conversion.
Linearity & Superposition Theorem.
1

Basic Concepts
Current: Charge in motion represents current.

Voltage: A measure of the difference in electric

potential between two points in space, a material, or
an electric circuit, expressed in volts. The energy per
unit of charge is often called voltage
Power: It is the rate at which electrical energy is
transferred by an electric circuit.
Resistance: It is a measure of the difficulty to pass
an electric current through a given conductor.
2

Basic Concepts
Voltage Source: A voltage source is a two
terminal device which can maintain a fixed
voltage.
Current Source: A current source is an

electronic circuit that delivers or absorbs

an electric current which is independent
of the voltage across it.

Ideal Voltage & Current Source

Practical Voltage

Basic Concepts
Node any point where 2 or more circuit
elements are connected together.
Wires usually have negligible resistance.
Each node has one voltage (w.r.t. ground).

Branch a circuit element between two nodes.

Loop a collection of branches that form a
closed path returning to the same node without
going through any other nodes or branches twice.
A network with B branches, N nodes, and L
independent loops will satisfy the fundamental theorem
of network topology:
4

Example
Determine the number of branches and
nodes in the circuit shown in following
figure. Identify which elements are in series
and which are in parallel.

Example

4 Branches

Example

3 Nodes.
Series- 10V & 5.
Parallel- 6 & 2A.
7

Example

How many nodes, branches & loops?

R1
+
-

Vs

+
R2

R3

Is
Vo
-

Example
R1
+
-

Vs

R2

R3

Is
Vo
-

Three nodes
9

Example
R1
+
-

Vs

+
R2

R3

Is
Vo
-

5 Branches

10

Example
A
+
-

R1

Vs

+
R2

R3

Is

Vo
-

Three Loops, if starting at node A

11

Problem
How many branches and nodes are there
in the following figure? Identify the
elements that are in series and in parallel.

12

Ohms Law
Ohms law states that the voltage V
across a resistor is directly proportional
to the current I flowing through the
resistor.

eries & Parallel Combination of Resistance:

13

Voltage & Current Division Rule

14

Example
Find equivalent resistance between
point a and b.
R1

R0

R2

R3

R0 is in series with R1.

R2 & R3 is in parallel with the previous portion.
15

Example
a
R0+
R1

R2

a
R

R3

16

Problem
Find equivalent resistance between
point a and b.

17

KCL (Kirchhoffs Current Law)

The algebraic sum of currents entering
a node is zero.

[N is the number of branches connected to

the node and in is the nth current entering (or
leaving) the node. Add each branch current
entering the node and subtract each branch
current leaving the node.]

currents in - currents out = 0

Or currents in = currents out

18

Example

I1 = 2A

I3 = 5A
I2 = 3A
19

Example

I1 = ?

I3 = 250 m A

I1 = 100mA

I2 = 150 mA
20

Example
Kirchoffs Current Law at B
A

I1
R1
I2

+
-

Vs

I3
R2

R3

Is

Vo
-

Assign current variables and directions

Add currents in, subtract currents out: I1 I2 I3 + Is = 0
21

Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of voltages around
each loop is zero

[M is the number of voltages in the loop (or

the number of branches in the loop) and V m is
the mth voltage. Beginning with one node, add
voltages across each branch in the loop (if you
encounter a + sign first) and subtract voltages
(if you encounter a sign first)]

voltage drops - voltage rises = 0

Or voltage drops = voltage rises

22

Example
Kirchoffs Voltage Law around 1st
Loop
I
+ IR A
B
R
1

I2
+
-

Vs

+
R2 I2R2

R3

Is
Vo

Assign current variables and directions

Use Ohms law to assign voltages and polarities consistent with
passive devices (current enters at the + side)

23

Example
Kirchoffs Voltage Law around 1st
Loop
I
+ IR A
B
R
1

I2
+
-

Vs

+
R2 I2R2

R3

Is
Vo

Starting at node A, add the 1st voltage drop: + I1R1

24

Example
Kirchoffs Voltage Law around 1st
Loop
I
+ IR A
B
R
1

I2
+
-

Vs

+
R2 I2R2

R3

Is
Vo

Add the voltage drop from B to C through R2: + I1R1 + I2R2

25

Example
Kirchoffs Voltage Law around 1st
Loop
I
+ IR A
B
R
1

I2
+
-

Vs

+
R2 I2R2

R3

Is
Vo

Subtract the voltage rise from C to A through Vs: + I1R1 + I2R2 Vs = 0

Notice that the sign of each term matches the polarity encountered 1st

26

Thvenins Theorem
A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced with an equivalent circuit of an
ideal voltage source, VTh, in series with a
resistor, RTh.
VTh is equal to the open-circuit voltage
at the terminals.
RTh is the equivalent or input resistance
when the independent sources in the
linear circuit are turned off.

27

Circuit Schematic:
Thvenins Theorem

28

Definitions for
Thvenins Theorem

Linear circuit is a circuit

where
the
voltage
is
directly proportional to the
current (i.e., Ohms Law is
followed).
Two terminals are the 2
nodes/2 wires that can
make
a
connection
between the circuit to the
29
load.

Definitions for
Thvenins Theorem

+
Voc
_

Open-circuit voltage Voc is the voltage, V, when the

load is an open circuit (i.e., RL = ).

VOC VTh
30

Definitions for
Thvenins Theorem
Input resistance is the resistance seen by
the load when VTh = 0V.

It is also the resistance of the linear circuit

when the load is a short circuit (RL = 0).

Rin RTh VTh iSC

31

Steps to Determine
VTh and RTh
1. Identify the load, which may be a
resistor or a part of the circuit.
2. Replace the load with an open circuit .
3. Calculate VOC. This is VTh.
4. Turn off all independent voltage and
currents sources in the linear 2-terminal
circuit.
5. Calculate the equivalent resistance of
the circuit. This is RTh.
32

Example
Find VTH, RTH and the load current flowing
through and load voltage across the load
resistor in following figure by using
Thevenins Theorem.

33

Step 1:
Calculate Open Circuit Voltage

34

Step 2:
Calculate Open Circuit
Resistance

35

Step 3:
Thvenins Equivalent
Circuit

36

Nortons Theorem
A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced with an equivalent circuit of
an ideal current source, IN, in parallel
with a resistor, RN.
IN is equal to the short-circuit current at
the terminals.
RN is the equivalent or input resistance
when the independent sources in the
linear circuit are turned off.
37

Circuit Schematic:
Nortons Theorem

38

Definitions for
Nortons Theorem

Short-circuit current Isc is the current, i, when the

load is a short circuit (i.e., RL = 0).

I SC I N
39

Definitions for
Nortons Theorem
Input resistance is the resistance seen by
the load when IN = 0A.

It is also the resistance of the linear circuit

when the load is an open circuit (RL = ).

Rin RN VOC I N
40

Steps to Determine
IN and RN
1. Identify the load, which may be a
resistor or a part of the circuit.
2. Replace the load with a short circuit .
3. Calculate ISC. This is IN.
4. Turn off all independent voltage and
currents sources in the linear 2-terminal
circuit.
5. Calculate the equivalent resistance of
the circuit. This is RN.
41

Example
Find RN, IN, the current flowing through and Load
Voltage across the load resistor in following
figure by using Nortons Theorem

42

Step 1:
Calculate Short Circuit
Current

43

Step 2:
Calculate Open Circuit
Resistance

44

Step 3:
Nortons Equivalent
Circuit

45

Source Conversion
A Thvenin equivalent circuit can
easily be transformed to a Norton
equivalent circuit (or visa versa).
If RTh = RN, then VTh = RNIN and IN =
VTh/RTh

46

Problems

47

Problems

48

Linearity Property
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly
related (or directly proportional) to its input.

Superposition Theorem
The superposition principle states that the
voltage across (or current through) an element in
a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltages across (or currents through) that
element due to each independent source acting
alone.
49

Example
Use the superposition theorem to find v
in the following circuit

50

Example

51

Problem
Use the superposition theorem to find
v0 in the following circuit
Ans: 6V

52

Problem
Use the superposition theorem to
find i1 in the following circuit

53

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum power is transferred to the
load when the load resistance equals
the Thevenin resistance as seen from
the load (RL = RTh).

54

Example
Find the value of RL for maximum
power transfer in the circuit. Find the
maximum power.

55

Example

Voc=22
V
RTh=9

RL=9
I=
=1.22Amp
VL=
PL=VLI=13.4
4W

56

Problem
Consider the circuit of following figure
(a) If Rout 3 k, find the power delivered to
it.
(b) What is the maximum power that can
be delivered to any Rout?
(c) What two different values of R out will
have exactly 20 mW delivered to them?

Ans: 230 mW; 306 mW; 59.2 k and 16.88 . 57