CE181 / A1

Chapter 1: Overview
Group 1
Labrador, Andrea Isabel
Manzano, Jun Cyril
Cabucungan, Noreen Anne A.
Castro, Eve Natividad R.
Santiago, Hannah Mishael F.
Orcullo, Alfonso Miguel D.
Vitasa, Bona Harley M.
Noche, Macgyver D.

Introduction
The 6.7 richter Magnitude Northridge
earthquake of January 17, 1994
Retrofit
-to install, fit, or adapt (a device or
system) for use with something older.

Los Angeles City Hall

Concepts, Terminology,
and Source of Earthquakes

Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a substance
refers to how much heavier than water
a unit volume of the substance is.
Some specific gravity related to
earthquake engineering are:
Earth Crust
2.7 3.0
Mantle (Inner periphery)
5.7
Core (periphery)
9.7
Center
12.3

Orogenic Movements and

Crust Convection (Conveyor
Belt)
It is responsible for mountain building and
valley forming.
It is the constant changes affecting the
surface of the earth.

Subduction Zones
It refers to the collision between two of the
planets tectonic plates.

Volcanoes
It is a rupture in the crust of a earth that
allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to
escape from a magma chamber below the
surface.

Sources of Earthquakes
Orogenic movements such as mountain
building
Subduction and plate convection followed by
geothermal and mechanical disturbances
Volcanic activity
Land erosion

Wave propagations and

Velocity

 Wave Propagation
--- It is the movement of the waves.

Hypocenter
--- The focal point of an earthquake under the surface
of the earth.

Epicenter
--- The point of an earthquake on the surface of the
earth.

Shock Waves

It is strongpressure wavein any elastic medium

such as air,water, or asolidsubstance, produced
by supersonic aircraft, explosions, lightning, or
other phenomena that create violent changes in
pressure.

Types of Shock Waves

Push Waves or P Waves
As it spreads out, it alternately pushes and
pulls the rock.
It arrives first and produces relatively mild
vibrations and less damage.
Shear Waves or S Waves
It produces transverse vibration with respect to
the direction of travel.
It cannot propagate in liquid parts of the earth.

Time difference between the

arrival of
P and S waves

where,
T = time difference between the arrival of p and s waves
s = distance from a given observation point to the

hypocenter
= propagation velocity of the transverse waves (s
waves)
= propagation velocity of the longitudinal waves (p
waves)

Wave Velocities
where,

E=Youngsmodulus
=Poissonsratio
(usually0.25)
=density

Velocities of typical transverse

waves to propagate through the
ground for selected materials
Material
Sand
Reclaimed sand
Clay
Gravel
Tertiary rock

Velocity (m/s)
60
100
250
600
1000 and up

Magnitude of earthquake
Measureofearthquakesize
determinedfromthelogarithmofthemaximumdisplacementor
amplitudeasseenonseismograph
withacorrectionforthedistancebetweenthefocusandthe
seismometer.

 Using a standard horizontal Wood-Anderson seismograph,

the magnitude

Where A denotes the trace amplitude in micrometers for

an epicentral distance of 100 Km.
When the distance is other than 100km

Where
is the magnitude at a distance
calculated from the basic Richter formula

 Magnitude 8.0 earthquake in Mindanao (August 17, 1976)

Magnitude 7.8 earthquake in Northern and Central Luzon
(July 16, 1990)
Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Luzon (November 30, 1645)
Magnitude 7.3 earthquake in Casiguran (August 2, 1968)
Magnitude 7.2 earthquake in Bohol (October 15, 2013)
Magnitude 7.1 earthquake in Mindoro (November 15,
1994)
Magnitude 6.9 earthquake in Central Visayas (February 6,
2012)
Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Central and Southern
Mindanao (March 5, 2002)

BUILDING DAMAGE
Identify the cause of building and
infrastructure damage through comprehensive
damage assessment
damage assessment should include:
A preliminary report
Design supervision
On-site inspections
Materials testing
Testing of construction units
Monitoring
Final report

BUILDING DAMAGE
As a measure of the magnitude of destruction caused by
the 1994 Northridge earthquake, following is a summary
of the structural damaged suffered in a densely
populated area, the City of Los Angeles:
Total Number of Buildings Damaged 93,200
(1900 red, 8800 yellow, 82,500 green).
GreenThe building has been inspected and no
restrictions on use or occupancy have been found.
YellowThe building has been inspected and found to
be damaged as described on the placard, limit use of the
building or portions of the building but not make it
completely unsafe.
RedThe building has been inspected and is damaged
and unsafe.

Of these, 3000 buildings suffered moderate to

major damage.
Failures by Building Class
Wood-framed homes: 1650
Wood-framed apartments, condominiums,
and hotels: 630
Tilt-ups, masonry: 350
Unreinforced masonry retrotted: 213
Structural steel buildings: 100

Building Damage
Assessment Report
Haiti earthquake 12
January 2010
Visual Interpretation
European Macroseismic Scale (EMS)
1998, which includes a substantial to
heavy damage state (Level 3), very heavy
damage state (Level 4), and destruction
damage state (Level 5).

STRUCTURAL FAILURE:
OVERALL FAILURE

Definition:
It refers to the loss of structural
integrity, which is the loss of the loadcarrying capacity of the component or
member within a structure, or of the
structure itself.
It is initiated when the material is
stressed beyond its strength limit, thus
causing
fracture
or
excessive
deformations.

5 Main Causes of Structural Failure:

1. Due to size, shape, or the choice of material,

is that the structure is not strong and tough
enough to support the load.
2. Due to geometry, design or material choice,
causing the structure to fail from fatigue or
corrosion.
3. Caused by manufacturing errors. Due to
improper selection of materials, incorrect
sizing, improper heat treating, failing to
adhere
to
the
design,
or
shoddy
workmanship.

4. Unpredictable from the use of defective

materials.
5. Lack of consideration of unexpected
problems. Vandalism, sabotage, and natural
disasters can all overstress a structure to the
point of failure.

 Different levels of structural damage

and economic loss can be associated
with the threshold value used to define
failure.
1. Catastrophic failure with loss of life
.
These
events
represent
the
major
concern of structural codes and regulations,
and a maximum effort has to be made to
avoid them.
2. Catastrophic failure in which no human lives
are endangered
.
These upsets provoke major economic
impact, such as shut-down of vital utility
facilities, interruption of communication
systems, and damage requiring demolition of
a structure.

3. Failure resulting in extensive property damage

Here,
failures
with
economically-feasible
repairs are represented by instances of
cracking that reduce normal design loadcarrying
capacity
extensive architectural
damage (weather tightness loss in windows,
cladding, and roof), and damage to the utility
supply (air-conditioning ducts, and plumbing).
4. Failure resulting in reduced serviceability
This type of failure is marked as minor or even
cosmetic, having nuisance value, in the case of
residential, commercial or industrial buildings,
to
occupants
because
of
anaesthetic
appearance, noisy floors, poor drainage, etc.

Examples of Structural
Failure

Expansion Joint
a mid-structure separation
designed to relieve stress on
building materials caused by
building movement induced by:
- thermal expansion and
contraction caused by
temperature changes,
- sway caused by wind,
- seismic events, etc.

Walls made of brick or concrete blocks are

routinely outfitted with expansion joints to
help minimize cracking in the veneer of the
wall.

. - Because the joint bisects

the entire structure, it marks
a gap through all building
assemblies--walls, floors,
roofs, decks, planters,
plazas, etc.
. - This gap must be filled to
restore the waterproofing,
fire proofing, sound proofing,
air barrier, roof membrane,
trafficable surface and other
functions of the building
elements it bisects.

-Expansion joint systems are

used to bridge the gap and
restore building assembly
functions while
accommodating expected
movements.
- The term "movement joint"
has been widely adopted in
preference to "expansion joint"
as it more appropriately
encompasses the fact that
building movement results in
both compression and
expansion of the material
installed.

Why does expansion joints

fail?
. - Improper handling during
transport, storage, or
assembly
. - Inadequate supports
. - Installation of the
expansion joint with an
incorrect orientation.
. - Exceeding the design
specifications
. - Aging or fatigue of the
material

Joint Sealants
. -are used to seal joints and
openings (gaps) between two or
more substrates, and are a
critical component for building
design and construction.
. -The main purpose of sealants
is to prevent air, water, and
other environmental elements
from entering or exiting a
structure while permitting
limited movement of the
substrates.

Why joint sealants

fail?
. - lack of attention to
detail
. - too few or
incorrectly sized
joints
. - the joints are
detailed too far apart,
or are made too small

CODE DESIGN FORCES:

RESERVE STRENGTH TO
COUNTER EXTREME
FORCES

 Large internal forces exceeded

several times the UBC-predicted
forces
It is important to evaluate and
compare the UBC recommended
design forces with actual
earthquake forces as measured
at the site

Design
The 1979 UBC lateral coefcient for
base shear (the maximum lateral force
coefcient) was 0.094 g at working
stress level, or 13% at strength level,
using the 1.4 UBC 1997 load factor for
conversion.
The 1988 UBC lateral coefcient for
base shear was a mere 11.3% g at
strength level, to be increased again to
13% by the 1997 UBC.

Actual
The lateral and vertical
earthquake force was 100% g
during the 1971 San Fernando
earthquake, measured at the
Pacoima Dam. It was nearly
200% g near the epicenter of the
1994 Northridge earthquake, at a
nursery north of the California
State University Northridge
Campus.

 The effects on buildings with a

disproportion between projected or design
forces and actual forces are clearly
obvious.
Building code regulations are prescriptive.
Design professionals are expected to
follow somewhat rigid design rules based
on the law of man rather than the law of
physics.

 If the gap between actual and predicted

design forces were not too large, it could
be assumed that a structure would
remain safe by applying a bit of
additional resistance as an adjustment.
If the actual forces were in excess of
approximately 15 times the UBCs
predicted design forces, something
drastic is destined to happen.
Time plays an essential role

 The UBC lateral coefcient,

applied horizontally to a ductile
moment frame, was between 12
and 18% g depending on height,
geometry, and other factors.
This is a markedly
underestimated value as
compared to the 100% g lateral
ground acceleration measured at
the Pacoima Dam during the 1971
San Fernando earthquake.

 The horizontal and vertical

ground accelerations measured
almost 200% gthe strongest
ground movement recorded in the
Northridge earthquakeat the
Cedar Hills nursery in Tarzana,*
near the epicenter. Such readings
substantiate the fact that
structures engineered following
UBC regulations in force at the
time were about 10 times under
designed.