Works Uppdated 2

COURSE TITLE: COMMUNICATION NETWORK S
COURSE CODE: MTE 501

CREDIT HOURS: 3
Dr. D. M. O. Adjin
LECTURER:
OFFICE HOURS: FRIDAY / 14:00 16:00 GMT

LOCATION: FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
PHONE: 020-269-8175
E-MAIL:
dadjin@gtuc.edu.gh
15/05/2008 18:10:18
Academic excellence in ICT Education
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF COMMUNICATIONS

NETWORKS
MODULE 2: REVIEW OF ANALOGUE &
DIGITAL SYSTEMS
MODULE 3: TELEPHONY
MODULE 4: TRANSMISSION MEDIA FOR COMMUNICATION
NETWORKS
MODULE 5: ANALOGUE NETWORKS, MODEMS
& MULTIPLEXERS
MODULE 6: ISDN NETWORK & EQUIPMENT / PACKET

SWITCHED & X.25 NETWORKS
MODULE 7: FRAME RELAY
MODULE 8: ATM NETWORKS
MODULE 9: TRAFFIC FLOW & CONGESTION CONTROL
DAY 1; MODULE 1
OVERVIEW OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
WHAT ARE NETWORKS?

WHAT ARE COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS?
FUNDAMENTAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS.
BASIC SIGNAL V PROCESSED SIGNAL.
STAND-ALONE NETWORKS V CONVERGED OFFERINGS
DAY 2; MODULE 2
ANALOGUE VS DIGITAL SYSTEMS
WHAT ARE ANALOGUE SYSTEMS?

DEMERITS OF ANALOGUE SYSTEMS
WHAT ARE DIGITAL SYSTEMS?
WHY DIGITAL SYSTEMS?
DIGITAL SYSTEM DESIGN HIERARCHY
DAY 3; MODULE 3
TELEPHONY
ANALOGUE TELEPHONY,
DIGITAL TELEPHONY,
IP TELEPHONY
PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORK
ECHO, HYBRIDS & ECHO SUPPRESSION
SWITCHING
ROUTING IN COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
DAY 4
MODULE
TRANSMISSION MEDIA FOR

COMMUNICATION NETTWORKS
OVERVIEW
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA
UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA
DAY 5
MODULE 5: ANALOGUE NETWORKS, MODEMS &
MULTIPLEXERS
ASSIGNMENT
Prepare Notes On The Following Topics. As Minimum Your
Notes Must Cover: The Principles (Concepts), Technologies,
Architectures, Applications, Potentials & Barriers, Etc.,
Underpinning These Elements Of Communication Networks.
MODEMs
MULTIPLEXING: FREQ, CLASSICAL & STATISTICAL
TIME DIVISION
PDH NETWORKS (E1 - E4, T1 - T4)
SONET/SDH (STS-N, STM-N, OC-N, PACKET
FORMATS/PAYLOAD)
DAY 6
MODULE 6
ISDN NETWORK AND EQUIPMENT /
PACKET SWITCHED NETWORKS & X.25 NETWORK
ISDN CHANNELS (B & D CHANNELS), N-ISDN SERVICES
(BRI & PRI).
DEVICES & NETWORK POINTS. THE PASSIVE BUS,
BASIC ISDN ADDRESSING.
ISDN EQUIPMENT (BRIDGES/ROUTERS, ISDN PHONES,
FAX MACHINES, TERMINAL ADAPTERS,
SYNCHRONOUS PC CARDS)
PVC, SVC, DTE & DCE, LCN, SVC ADDRESSES, X.25
NETWORK TE,
BROADBAND-ISDN
DAY 7
MODULE 7
FRAME RELAY
DLCI NUMBERS AND FRADS. CONGESTION CONTROL
(CIR, DE).
CONGESTION NOTIFICATION (BECN, FECN)
TRAFFIC NATURE, ATM REFERENCE MODEL, ATM
CELLS,
UNI, NNI, ATM CONNECTIONS (VCI, VPI), TRAFFIC
FLOW (SCR, CLP), CELL FORMATS, ADAPTATION
LAYER SERVICES.
ATM ON LANS.
DAY 8
MODULE 8:
ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

NETWORK;
ATM Cells, Cell Formats, ATM Concept, ATM Devices;
Network Interfaces (UNI, NNI & B-ICI );
ATM Advantages & Disadvantages;
B-ISDN & ATM Technology;
ATM Connections, Virtual Chans &Virtual Path (VCI, VPI);
ATM Protocols; ATM Reference Model;
Tx Of ATM Cells; ATM Network; ATM Switch; ATM QoS;
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL); AAL Services;
Traffic Flow (SCR, CLP), Latency/Speed Effect;
Cell Transfer Delay (CTD); Cell Delay Variation (CDV), Etc
14/09/2011
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DAY 9
MODULE 9:
FLOW CONTROL & CONGESTION CONTROL
WHAT IS CONGESTION?
TWO CONGESTION CONTROL STRATEGIES,
TRAFFIC RATE MANAGEMENT,
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT/POLICING,
EXPLICIT CONGESTION AVOIDANCE,
IMPLICIT CONGESTION CONTROL,
EXPLICIT CONGESTION NOTIFICATION),
ATM CONNECTION ADMISSION CONTROL (CAC),
USAGE PARAMETER CONTROL,
ATM CELL PRIORITY CONTROL,
ATM TRAFFIC SHAPING & TRAFFIC POLICING.
DAY 10 MODULE 9
CONTD
ATM CONNECTION ADMISSION CONTROL (CAC),
USAGE PARAMETER CONTROL,

ATM CELL PRIORITY CONTROL,
ATM TRAFFIC SHAPING & TRAFFIC POLICING.
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DAY 10 MODEL 10
MPLS Basics
MPLS fundamentals
MPLS components
MPLS operation
MPLS L3 VPNs
MPLS TE
AToM (ATM network Migration to ATM o MPLS)
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RECOMMENDED READING MATERIALS /

SOURCES:
Communication Systems, By Simon Haykin,
3rd Edition, Current Edition
"ISDN and Broadband ISDN with Frame Relay and ATM", By
William Stallings, Prentice Hall, 1995.
"ISDN: Concepts, Facilities, and Services", By: Gary C. Kessler
and Peter Southwick McGraw Hill, 1997.
Telecommunications Switching, Traffic and Networks. BY: J. E.
Flood, New York: Prentice Hall, 1995.
Principles of Communication Systems, 2nd ed. By: H. Taub and
D. L. Schilling, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986.
Any Other Relevant Book
WWW.
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DAY 1
MODULE 1
OVERVIEW OF COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
WHAT ARE NETWORKS?
WHAT ARE COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS?
FUNDAMENTAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
NETWORKS.
BASIC SIGNAL V PROCESSED SIGNAL.
STAND-ALONE NETWORKS V CONVERGED OFFERINGS
1.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW

What Is Communication?
Generally, Communication Is The Techniques Of Exchanging
Thoughts, Messages, Or Information, Such As Speech, Signals,
Writing, Or Behaviour B/n Parties With Common Understanding.
Or Transmitting & Receiving Information From One Point(s) To
Another/Other Points.
It Is The Field Of Study Concerned With:

The Tx & Reception Of Information By Various Means, I.e.,
Print,
Broadcasting / Electronic Media,
Mail, Telephone,
Fax Or
Television,.
In The Electronic World, Communication Is The Transfer Of

Information From One Point To Another.
What Are Networks?
The Generic Term "Network" Refers To A Group Of Entities

(Objects, Devices, People, Etc.) Which Are Interconnected To One
Another To Communicate.
A Network, Therefore, Allows Information To Be Circulated
Among All Interconnected Entities, Based On Well-defined
Protocols.
Historically, Most Communications Systems Were Started With
Point-to-point Links Which Directly Connected Together The
Users Wishing To Communicate Using Dedicated Ccts.
As The Distance Between Users Increased Beyond The

Length Of The
Cable,
The Connection B/n The Users Was Formed By A
Number Of Sections
Which Were Connected End-to-end In Series To Form The Circuit.
A Connection Among Four Nodes (A & D) Formed From 3 Links
The Connection Between The Users

(A And D) In The Figure Below Is
Represented By A Series Of Links
(AB, BC, And CD) Each Link Connects Two Points
Known As Nodes.
For A Point-to-point Circuit, The Nodes Are Patch
Panels Which Provide A Simple Connection Between
The Two Links (I.e. The Two Tx Circuits).
As The Number Of Connected Users Increased,

It Becomes Infeasible To Provide A Circuit Which
Connects Every User To Every Other User,
Some Sharing Of The Tx Circuits (Known As
"Switching") Became Necessary.
Therefore, Networks Are:
Sets Of Nodes That Are Interconnected To Permit The
Exchange Of Information.
Network Use Is Initiated By A Connection Phase,
A Circuit Is Set Up B/n Source & Destination, & Terminated
By A Disconnect Phase.
These Phases, With Associated Timings,

Are Illustrated In The Figure Below.
A Circuit Switched Connection Between Nodes A & D
Information Flows In Two Directions.

Information Sent From The Calling End Is Shown
In Pink
Information Returned From The Remote End Is
Shown In Blue.
After A User At (A) Node Requests A Circuit,

The Desired Destination Address Must Be
Communicated To;
The Local Switching Node (B), (C) Or (D).
What Are Communication Networks

In Telecommunications Engineering, Communication
Networks are:
The Channels & Nodes That Interconnect All Tx & Switching
Systems Including:
The Last Mile Elements (Customer Assess Networks CAN),
Interface Devices,
Supporting Hardware & Software.
WHAT ARE COMMUNICATION CHANNELS?

Also Called A "Circuit" Or "Line / Link
These Are:
Pathways Over Which Data Are Transferred B/n
Remote Devices & Nodes.
They May Refer To The Entire Physical Medium, Such As:
A Telephone Line,
Optical Fiber,
Coaxial Cable Or
Twisted Wire Pair,
Radio/Wireless
May Refer To One Of Several Carrier Freqs Tx
Simultaneously Within The Line.
Fundamental Model of Communication

The Proto-typical Communication Network
Be It The:
Postal Service,
Fixed Line,
Cellular Network, Or
The Internet
Consists Of Nodes Interconnected By Links.
Messages Formed By The Source Are Transmitted

Within The Network By Dynamic Routing.
Two Routes Are Shown.
The Longer One Would Be Used If The Direct Link
Were Disabled Or Congested.
The shorter rout is the preferred on / first choice.
Modern Communication Networks Strive To

Achieve:
The Most Efficient (Timely) &
o Most Reliable Information Delivery System Possible.
Communication Networks Process Basic Signals:

In Order To Increase The Capacity Of The
Network.
One Effective Means Of Increasing The Range Of

Services That Can Be Carried On Any Particular Cable Or
Wireless System Is To:
Compress The Basic Signal,
So That Much Of The Redundant Information Is Removed
Before Tx.
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Another Way To Enhance The Capacity Of A Tx

System Is To:
Carry Different Types Of Signal Or Service
At The Same Time.
This Can Be Done By:
Multiplexing
Techniques That Mix Voice & Data Signals On The
Same Tx Path.
A Whole Variety Of Signal Compression & Multiplexing
Technologies Are Now Massively Expanding The Capacity
Of Communication Networks.
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STAND-ALONE NETWORKS V CONVERGED

OFFERINGS
Traditionally, Communication Networks Have Been
Created To Serve Specific Purposes, Such As:
Broadcasting Network For TV,
Telephone Network For Voice &
Internet For Data.
Increasingly, Both Physical Networks & Customer
Offerings Are Converging Because:

Digitalisation Of Networks Makes This Possible &
Competitive Marketplaces Make It Desirable.
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At Least Three Types Of Convergence Are Occurring:

B/n Voice & Data Thro Services Like ISDN &
Networks Like The Internet;
B/n Telecoms & Broadcasting Thr Telephone Companies
Offering Video On Demand
Cable Companies Providing Telephony Service;
B/n Fixed & Mobile Telephony As Customers Are Offered
Packages Combining Both Services.
Phones Have Been Developed That Can Be Used In The Home,
Office Or On The Move.
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THE END OF MOGULE 1
MODULE 2
ANALOGUE Versus DIGITAL SYSTEMS
DEMERITS OF ANALOGUE SYSTEMS
DIGITAL SYSTEM DESIGN HIERARCHY
REVIEW OF ANALOGUE & DIGITAL

SYSTEMS
One Way Of Understanding How Telecommunications

Systems Work & How They Are Changing Is To:
Consider A Number Of Basic Paired Concepts, Such As:
Analogue & Digital Systems

Analogue Systems Are Electronic Devices That Use
Continuous Wave-like Form Signals To Function.
I.e., Analogue Signals Have Continuous Wave Forms.
In Analogue Communication Systems,
The Further The Signal Travels, The More Likely It Is To
Become Degraded
Therefore, Over Anything Other Than Short Distances, These
Signals Are Boosted In Strength At Various Points In The
Network
Any Subsequent Distortions/Noises Are Amplified At The Same
Time.
Analogue Signal Wave-form
Advantages of Analogue Systems

Requires Less Bandwith To Send Info
More accurate
Demerits Of Analogue Systems
These Include:
Poor Quality of Signal - due to High Levels of Noise,
Distortion, Harmonics, Interference, Etc.)
Low Capacity
Low Speed
Short Distance Coverage,
Etc.

By Contrast, Digital Systems Are Electronic
Devices That Utilize Discrete Signals (Pulses) To
Operate.
They Essentially Represent Power On & Off; Or
To Use The Binary Language Of Computers
Zeros (0s) & Ones (1s).
Digital Signal Wave-form
Digital Signals Can Be Recreated (Regenerated) At

Their Destination / Terminating-ends,
In Exactly The Same Form They Left Their
Originating Point,
Despite Any Distortion, Noise Etc., Along The
Route,
Since The Only Two Possibilities For The Original Signal Are 0s
& 1s, On & Off.

All Communication Networks
Whether Telephony Or Broadcasting,
Whether Fixed Or Mobile
Are Increasingly Becoming Digital Because The
QUALITY of the signal is so much SUPERIOR.
The Capacity/Bandwidth/Speed Of The Network Are So
Much Greater.
The Distance Covered Is So Enormous
Due To Signal Regeneration.
DIGITAL SYSTEM DESIGN
Digital System Design Involves A Significant Amount Of

Custom / Conventional Logic Circuitry
Including Pre-designed Major Components, Such As:
Processors,
Memory Units &
Various Types Of Input / Output (I/O) Interfaces.
Disadvantages Of Digital Systems

Sampling Error / Quantization Error
Requires Greater Bw Than Analogue To Tx
The Same Amount Of Info
Strict Synchronization Required B/n Tx & Rx
Entities
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END OF MODULE 2
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DAY 2
MODULE 3
TELEPHONY
ANALOGUE TELEPHONY,
PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORK
DIGITAL TELEPHONY,
IP TELEPHONY
SWITCHING
What Is Telephony?
In The Field Of Telecommunications Technology,
The Term Telephony, Embodies:
The General Use Of Telecom Equipment & Devices
To Provide Voice Communication Over Distances,
Specifically By Interconnecting Telephones To
Each Other.
Basically, Telephony Is About:
Telephone Systems Used For Telephone Conversation.
Telephones Originally Were Connected

Directly Together In Pairs.
Each User Had Separate Telephones Wired To
The Various Places He/She Might Wish To Reach.
This Became Inconvenient When Users Wanted To Talk
To Many Other Telephone Users,
Thus, The Telephone Exchange Was Invented.
Basically, An Exchange Is A Central System Of
Switches & Other Equipment That Establishes
Connections B/n Individual Telephones,
Connects & Disconnects Telephone
Systems/Conversations
Typical Circuit Route For A Medium-distance Call
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Digital Telephony
The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) Has
Gradually Evolved Towards Digital Telephony Which
Has Improved The Capacity & Quality Of The Network.
IP Telephony
IP Telephony Is A Modern Form Of Telephony Which Uses The
TCP/IP Protocol Popularized By The Internet To Transmit
Digitized Voice Data.
A Service Based On Voice over IP (VoIP),
Uses A Broadband Internet Connectivity To Transmit
Conversations As Data Packets.
Competing With Mobile Phone Networks By Offering Free Or
Lower Cost Connections Via Wifi Hotspots.
Computer Telephony Integration (CTI)
CTI Enables Computers To Know About &

Control Phone Functions Such As:
Making & Receiving Voice, Fax, & Data Calls With Telephone
Directory Services & Caller Identification.
The Integration Of Telephone Software & Computer

Systems Is A Major Development In The Evolution Of
Office Automation.
TELEPHONE LOCAL LOOP (TLL)

TLL Is The Portion Of The Telephone System That
Connects Our Home Or Office To The Nearest
Exchange / Central Office (CO) Of Our Local Telco.
A Local Loop Is The Tx Path B/n An Exchange & A
Subscriber's Premises.
The Wiring Used In The Local Loop Is Usually Unshielded
Twisted-pair (UTP) Cabling.
The Tx Method Is Analogue
The Maximum Distance From The Exch. To The Subscribers
Customer Premises Is About 5 Kilometers.
A Local Loop May Be Provisioned To Support Data

Communications Appns, Or Combined Voice &
Data Such As:
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Local Loop Connections Can Be Used To Carry A Range Of

Services, Including:
Analogue Voice Signal
Signalling Used In Traditional POTS
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
Variants Of Digital Subscriber Line (XDSL)
A Typical Pictorial Local Loop
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Data Network Local Loop

The Local Loop Is Often Called "The Last Mile",
It Refers To The Last Section Of Analogue Telephone
Line That Goes From The Telephone Company's Exch To
Our Premises.
Typical Local Loop Protocols Are:
Voice Lines
MODEM Connections - 56 Kbps
ISDN - 2 X 64 Kbps Digital Lines
ADSL - Up To 8 Mbps
Cable MODEMS - Up To 30 Mbps
Simple Data Network Local Loop
Local Loop for Data Communication Systems
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Fibre In The Local Loop

For Advanced Future Services, Such As Video On
Demand, The 3-Khz Will Not Do.
Two Possibilities Of What To Do Are:
- a) Running A Fibre From End Office Into Everyone's
House Called FTTH (Fibre To The Home).
This Solution Fits In Well With The Current System But It Is
Too Expensive.
- b) Running An Optical Fibre From Each End Office Into Each
Neighbourhood (The Curb) That It Serves (FTTC - Fibre To The
Curb).
Fibre To The Curb.

(A) Using The Telephone Network.
(B) Using The Cable TV Network.
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Local Loop Line Characteristics

Telephone Lines Are Not Perfect Devices Due To
Their Analogue Nature.
The Quality Of The Telephone Line Determines The Rate That
Modulated Data Can Be Transferred.
Good Noise Free Lines Allow Faster Transfer Rates Such As 14.4
Kbps,
Poor Quality Lines Require The Data Transfer Rate To Be
Stepped Down To 9.6Kbps Or Less.
Phone Lines Have Several Measurable Characteristics

That Determine The Quality Of The Line:
Attenuation , Distortion & Propagation Delay
Attenuation: Change In Amplitude Of The Txted Signal Over

The Voice Band.
It Is The Frequency Response Curve Of The Voice Band.
Distortion: Alteration / Change in the original waveform/shape
of Electrical Signals.
Propagation Delay: Signals Txted Down A Line Will Take A
Finite Time To Reach The End Of The Line.
Delay From The Time Signal Is Txted To The Time It Is
Received Is Called Propagation Delay.
Local Loop Line Impairments

Line Impairments Are Faults In The Line Due To
Improper Line Terminations Or Equipment Out Of
Specifications.
These Cannot Be Conditioned Out But Can Be
Measured To Determine The Amount Of The
Impairment.
There Are 6 Categories Of Line Impairments:

o Crosstalk
o Echo Or Signal Return
o Frequency Shift
o Non-linear Distortion
o Jitter: Amplitude & Phase
o Transients: Impulse Noise,
o Gain Hits Dropouts &
o Phase Hits
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Impulse Noise Is Sharp Quick Spikes On The Signal

Caused From Electromagnetic Interference, Lightning,
Sudden Power Switching, Electromechanical Switching,
Etc.
These Appear On The Telephone Line As Clicks & Pops
Which Are Not A Problem For Voice Communication But
Can Appear As A Loss Of Data Or Even As Error During
Data Transfers.
Impulse Noise
Has A Duration
1
Their
Effect Is Dissipated
Within 4 Msec.
Academic excellence in
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Of Less Than
msec &
ICT Education
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Gain Hits
Gain Hits Are Sudden Increase In Amplitude That Last More
Than 4 msec.
Telephone Company Standards Allow For No More Than 8 Gain
Hits In Any 15 Minute Interval.
A Gain Hit Would Be
Heard On A Voice
Conversation As If
The Volume Were
Turned Up For Just
An Instance.
AM Carriers Are
Particularly
Sensitive
To Gain
Hits.in
Academic
excellence
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ICT Education
70
Dropouts
Dropouts are sudden loss of signal amplitude greater
than 12 db that last longer than 4 mSec.
Cause more errors than any other type of transients.
No more than 1 dropout for every 30 minute interval allowed.
Heard on a voice conversation similar to call waiting, line goes
dead for a 1/2 second.
Sufficient loss of signal
for some digital transfer
protocols such SLIP,
that a connection is lost
&would have to be
re-established.
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Phase Hits
Sudden large changes in the Rxd signal phase

(20 degrees) or freq m lasting longer than 4 mSec.
Phase Hits generally occur when switching between Telcos,
common carriers or transmitters.
FSK and PSK Are Particularly Sensitive To Phase Hits.
The Data May Be Incorrect Until The Out Of Phase Condition Is
Rectified.
No More Than 8 Phase Hits In Any 15 Minutes.
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Telephone Line Conditioning

These Are:
Any Process That Prevents Undesirable Electrical
Signals From Damaging Networks Or Telecom Equipment &
Guards Against Data Loss Due To:
Electrical Noise,
Sags, &
Surges, Etc.,
Any Electronic Device Or Circuit Used In This Process Is
Called Line Conditioner.
PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORK (PSTN)

PSTN Is A Circuit-switched Network That Is Used
Primarily For Voice Communications Worldwide,
With More Than One Billion Subscribers,
In Much The Same Way That The Internet Is The Network Of
The World's Public IP-based Packet-switched Networks.
Originally A Network Of Fixed-line Analogue Telephone
Systems,
The PSTN Is Now Almost Entirely Digital & Also Includes:
Mobile
As Well As Fixed Telephones.
Early Development of PSTN

The first telephones had no network but
were in private use, wired together in pairs.
Users who wanted to talk to different people had as
many telephones as necessary for the purpose.
A user who wished to speak, whistled into the
transmitter until the other party heard.
Soon, however, a bell was added for signalling, and then
a switchhook, and telephones took advantage of the
exchange principle already employed in telegraph
networks.
Each telephone was wired to a local

telephone exchange, and the exchanges
were wired together with trunk circuits.
Networks were connected together in a
hierarchical manner until they spanned cities,
countries, continents and oceans.
This was the beginning of the PSTN, though the
term was unknown for many decades.
The PSTN was the earliest example

of traffic engineering to deliver QoS guarantees.
A number of large private telephone networks which are
not linked to the PSTN, usually for military & national
security purposes.
Private networks run by large companies are linked to
the PSTN only through limited gateways, like a large
Private Branch Exchange (PBX).
PSTN Architecture and Context

Class 1:
regional centers
Class 1:
regional centers
Class 2:
sectional centers
Class 2:
sectional centers
Class 3:
primary centers
Class 3:
primary centers
Class 4:
toll centers
Class 4:
toll centers
Class 5:
local central office
Class 5:
local central office
Tandem office
Local
loops
Residential
customer
Local
loops
Business
customer
Residential
customer
Local Carrier's Domain of Influence, Intra-LATA
Business
customer
Traditional PSTN Call Set Up Process

Certainly, the methods and processes used to
provide that communication have gone through
tremendous changes in the past 27 years,
however, we can count on the basic process to
continue to be used into the foreseeable future.
Illustration of Basic PSTN Telephone Call

Process is as shown below
What is Echo?
In audio signal processing and
acoustics, an echo is a reflection of
sound, arriving at the listener some
time after the original sound.
Typical examples are the echo

produced by the bottom of a well,
by an empty building, or by the walls of an
enclosed room.
A true echo is a single reflection of the sound
source.
In telephony, "Echo" is the reflected copy of the
voice heard some time later after one had spoken.
Echo is a delayed version of an

original signal.
In a phone conversation, echo is the sound of our
own voices being played back to us after a delay.
On a telephone, if the delay is fairly significant
(more than a few hundred milliseconds), it is
considered annoying.
Low level Echo may not be objectionable

to humans, but can interfere with
communication between data modems.
Sometimes it is overlaid with the other partys
voice.
Strong and delayed echo signals can be very
annoying, and in some extreme cases, make
conversation impossible.
Echo Sources
PSTN, Mobile, and VoIP
communications systems can get echo
from a number of sources.
For this reason, network-based echo
cancellers are critical for good quality
of service.
Types of Echo
Two main types of echo that occur
in the typical communications
network are:
- Hybrid echo and
- Acoustic echo.
Hybrid Echo
Hybrid echo is generated by the PSTN
through the reflection of electrical energy
by a device called a hybrid (hence the term
hybrid echo).
Most telephone local loops are
two-wire circuits while transmission
facilities are four-wire circuits.
Hybrid echo (also known

as electrical echo) is caused by
an impedance mismatch on the 4-wire
to 2-wire conversion in wireline
networks.
It is the primary network-induced
echo in todays networks.
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Acoustic Echo
Acoustic echo is created as a result of
insufficient acoustic isolation between
the earpiece and the microphone in
small handsets, or
when acoustic waves are reflected
against a wall or enclosure, typically
when using a hands-free unit.
Acoustic echo arises when sound from

a loudspeaker, the earpiece of a
telephone handsetis picked up by the
microphone in the very same handset.
Echo Cancelling
Since the invention of the telephone,
various techniques and technologies have
been employed to cancel echo.
Todays echo cancellation technology uses
digital signal processing (DSP) and echo
cancellation algorithms.
Solving the echo problem in the

Unacceptable and Limiting
Case areas of the Echo
Objection Rate graph is the key
to providing service quality.
Echo Suppression
The method used to reduce the
echo heard on long telephone circuits,
particularly circuits that traverse satellite
links is referred to as Echo Suppression.
The telecommunications device or system
used to execute echo suppression is termed
as an Echo Suppressor or "Acoustic Echo
Suppressor" AES.
SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
What is meant by Switching?
Switching is the Process of Making,
Breaking, Turning-On or Turning-Off
Contacts, Circuits, Interconnections,
Networks, Terminals, Nodes, etc., in order
to establish or disengage electronic or
electrical setups, contacts or connections.
Why Switching?
The basic purpose of switching is to
Activate (Enable) or Deactivate (Disable)
Circuits, Networks, Nodes, etc., by the use
of manual or electronic switch or switches.
What Is A Switch?
In Telecommunications Networks,
A Switch Is An Electronic Device That
Channels (Directs) Incoming Data From
Any Of Multiple Input Ports Or Nodes To
The Specific Output Port Or Node That
Will Take The Information Or Data Toward
Its Intended Destination.
A telephone switch is the brains of

telephone exchange.
It is a device for routing calls from one
telephone / network to another.
Electronic Switching Systems

The Electronic Switching Systems were
made possible by the invention of the
transistor.
They apply the basic concepts of an
electronic data processor, operating under
the direction of a stored-program control,
and high-speed switching networks.
Digital Switches
Digital switches work by connecting two or
more digital circuits together, according to a
dialed telephone number or typing the
Email Address of a host Computer.
Calls are setup between switches using the
Signalling System 7 protocol.
Requirements for Switching

Think about how things would be if we could
only use our telephone connected permanently in
order to talk to just one other person.
There would be millions of cables buried
underground and trillions of copper or
aluminium wires passed overhead in towns and
cities.
We would not be very productive,

efficient, effective, etc.
So there are requirements for
switching systems to route our calls
around the world.
Three components are necessary

for such systems:
Terminals which are either input or
output transducers - Converters of
sound energy to electrical energy and
the vice versa of information.
a) A terminal to generate and transmit

control signals to indicate the
required destination of the information
signal.
b) Transmission links to convey the information
and control signals between the terminals and
switching centres.
c) Switching centres or exchanges to receive the
control signals and to forward or connect the
information signals.
SWITCHING HIERARCHY
Hierarchy in the telephone network

As the number of separate
switching centres increases the
number of different trunk routes
between them increases.
Above About Ten Centres The Number

Of Trunk Routes Becomes Very Large And
Routes Tend To Contain Too Few Circuits
To Make The Network Economic.
The Process Of Centralizing Switching Centres
Can Occur At Several Levels Leading To What Is
Called A Hierarchical Network.
Ls = Local Switching Centre
Ts = Trunk Switching Centre

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The Hierarchy of Switching Systems in

its Most Basic Form Consists of Five
Classes of Offices.
Hierarchical Network of
Switching Centres
The Hierarchy of Switching
Systems in its Most Basic
Form Consists of Five Classes
of Offices.
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Please note that the only office / exchange that has

people as its subscribers is the Class-5 office.
The other exchanges in this hierarchy have lowerlevel exchanges as their subscribers.
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Those lines connecting switching

offices to switching offices, rather
than to subscribers, are called
trunks.
Trunk Circuits are the media or resources
that interconnect two or more switches or
exchanges for the purpose of establishing
communications networks, basically, over
long distances.
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Conventional Representation of
Hierarchical Switching Network
Above about ten centres the number of trunk

routes becomes very large and routes tend to
contain too few circuits to make the network
economic.
The process of centralizing switching centres can
occur at several levels leading to what is called a
hierarchical network, consisting of:
LS = Local Switching Centre
TS = Trunk Switching Centre
Central Exchange Switching System

A simple way of structuring a switched
network is to arrange that each terminal has a
direct transmission link to every other terminal.
Each terminal needs a switch to

connect it to the required link and a switch
to make connection to a link in order to
receive an incoming call.
This lacks efficient and economic utilization
of resources.
A more efficient and economic way of

structuring switching networks is the ATM - Centralized
Switching design.
TRUNK CIRCUITS
Trunk Circuits are the media or

resources that interconnect two or
more switches or exchanges for the
purpose of establishing long distance
communications networks.
3.6 CIRCUIT SWITCHING,

In Telecommunications, A Circuit
Switching Network Is One That Establishes
A Fixed Bandwidth Circuit (Or Channel) Between
Nodes And Terminals Before The Users May
Communicate, As If The Nodes Were Physically
Connected With An Electrical Circuit.
The Bit Delay Is Constant During The Connection, As
Opposed To Packet Switching, Where Packet
Queues May Cause Varying Delay.
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Here, a Channel (Circuit) Is

Dedicated For The
Duration Of A Connection, Even If
No Data Is Being Transferred.
Once The Circuit Is Established, The
Network Is Effectively Transparent To
The Users, Resulting In Negligible
Delays.
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Circuit-Switching Stages
a)Circuit Establishment: During This Stage
The Station Requests Connection From
Node Which Determines Best Route And Sends
Message To Next Link To Establish The Path.
Each Subsequent Node Continues The
Establishment Of A Path.
Once Nodes Have Established Connection,
Test Message Is Sent To Determine If Receiver Is
Ready/Able To Accept Message
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b) Data Transfer:
Messages Are Sent From Station To

Station During This Phase.
c) Circuit Disconnect:
When data transfer is complete, one station
initiates termination signals which must be
propagated to all nodes used in transit in order
to free up resources (links).
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Examples Of Circuit Switched Networks

PSTN; ISDN B-channel; Circuit Switched Data
(CSD) and High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD)
service in cellular systems such as GSM; X.21 (Used in the
German DATEX-L and Scandinavian DATEX circuit
switched data network), etc.
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Packet Switching
What Is Packet Switching?
Packet Switching Is A Communications
Method In Which Packets (Discrete Blocks Of
Data) Are Routed Between Nodes Over Data
Links Shared With Other Traffic.
In Each Network Node, Packets Are Queued Or
Buffered, Resulting In Variable Delay.
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Packet Switching Refers To

Protocols In Which
Messages Are Broken Up Into
Small Packets Before They Are
Sent.
Each Packet Is Transmitted
Individually Across The Net.
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The Packets May Even Follow Different

Routes To The Destination, Depends
On The Type Of Packet Switching.
Thus, Each Packet Has Header Information
Which Enables Us To Route The Packet To
Its Destination.
At The Destination, The Packets Are
Reassembled Into The Original Message
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Packet Switching
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Circuit Switching Vs. Packet Switching

In Circuit Switching Networks, When
Establishing A Call A Set Of Resources Is
Allocated For This Call.
These Resources Are Dedicated For This Call, And
Cannot Be Used By Any Of The Other Callers.
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Circuit Switching Is Ideal When Data

Must Be Transmitted Quickly, Must
Arrive In Sequencing Order And
At A Constant Arrival Rate.
Therefore, When Transmitting Real Time
Data, Such As Audio And Video, Circuit
Switching Networks Will Be Used.
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Packet Switching Main Difference From

Circuit Switching Is That, The
Communication Lines Are Not Dedicated
To Passing Messages From The Source
To The Destination.
In Packet Switching, Different Messages Can Use
The Same Network Resources Within The Same
Time Period.
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Since Network Resources Are Not

Dedicated To A Certain Session The
Protocol Avoid From Waste Of
Resources When No Data Is
Transmitted In The Session.
Packet Switching Is More Efficient And
Robust For Data That Is Burst In Its Nature,
And Can Withstand Delays In Transmission,
Such As E-mail Messages, And Web Pages.
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Kinds of Packet Switching

There are two basic types of Packet Switching.
Virtual Circuit Packet Switching Networks.
Datagram Packet Switching Networks
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Virtual Circuit Packet Switching Networks
An Initial Setup Phase Is Used To Set Up A Route B/n

The Intermediate Nodes For All The Packets Passed
During The Session B/n The Two End Nodes.
In Each Intermediate Node, An Entry Is Registered In A Table To
Indicate The Route For The Connection That Has Been Set Up.
The Packets Passed Through This Route, Have Short Headers,

Containing Only A Virtual Circuit Identifier (VCI).
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Datagram Packet Switching Networks

This Approach Uses A Different & More Dynamic
Scheme, To Determine Route Thr Network Links.
Each Packet Is Treated As An Independent Entity,
Header Contains Full Information About The Destination Of
The Packet.
Destination - Protocols Such As RIP/OSPF Is Used To
Determine The Shortest Path To The Destination.
Finding A Free Node To Pass The Packet To.
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Routing in Packet Switched Network

Complex, crucial aspect of packet switched networks
Characteristics required:
CorrectnessSimplicityRobustnessStabilityFairness
OptimalityEfficiency
Performance Criteria Used To Selection Routes
Minimum Hop
Least Cost
Delay
Throughput
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Example Of Packet Switched Network

Communicating Nodes: Node-1 To Node-6
What Is Of Interest? Shortest Path (1-3-6)
Least Cost
Path (1-4-5-6)
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Routing Strategies
These Include:
Fixed Routingflooding RoutingRandom
RoutingAdaptive Routing
Once A Route Is Determined For A Packet, It Is Entirely
Possible That The Route May Change For The Next Packet,
Thus Leading To A Case Where Packets From The Same
Source Headed To The Same Destination Could Be Routed
Differently,
Hence, There Is Considerable Delay In Arrival Time Of
Packets.
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Packet Switched Network

Packet Switching Is Used To:
-Optimize The Utilization Of The Channel Capacity
Available In Digital Telecomms Networks Such As
Computer Networks,
- Minimize The Transmission Latency (I.E. The Time
It Takes For Data To Pass Across The Network)
-Increase Robustness Of Communication.
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The most well-known use of packet

switching is the Internet and LAN.
The Internet uses the IP Suite over a variety
of data link layer protocols.
For example, Ethernet and frame relay are very
common.
Newer mobile phone technologies (e.g., GPRS, Imode) also use packet switching.
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X.25 Is A Notable Use Of Packet Switching

In That, Despite Being Based On Packet
Switching Methods, It Provided Virtual Circuits
To The User.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Is Also A VC
Technology, Which Uses Fixed-length Cell Relay
Connection Oriented Packet Switching.
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Advantages Of Packet Switching

Line Efficiency
Single Node To Node Link Can Be Shared By Many Packets
Over Time
Packets Queued & Transmitted As Fast As Possible
Data Rate Conversion
Each Station Connects To The Local Node At Its Own Speed
Nodes Buffer Data If Required To Equalize Rates
Packets Are Accepted Even When Network Is Busy
Delivery May Slow Down
Priorities Can Be Used
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Packet Switching Optimizes The Use Of Bandwidth By Enabling

Many Devices To Route Packets Through The Same
Network Channels.
At Any Given Time, A Switch Can Route Packets To Several
Different Destination Devices, Adjusting The Routes As Required To
Achieve The Best Efficiency.
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X.25
Network
What Is X.25?
X.25 Is An ITU-T Protocol Standard For WAN
Communications;
That Defines How Connections B/n User Devices &
Network Devices Are Established & Maintained.
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X.25 Is Designed To Operate Effectively

Regardless Of The Type Of Systems Connected
To The Network.
It Is Typically Used In The Packet-switched Networks (PSNs)

Of Common Carriers, Such As The Telephone Companies.
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What is an X.25 Network?
An X.25 network provides a means by which one X.25 DTE (a

Terminal or Host of some kind) can exchange data with one
or more other X.25 Host, on the other side of the network.
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X.25 Session Establishment
X.25 Sessions Are Established When One DTE Device
Contacts Another To Request A Communication Session.
The DTE Device That Receives The Request Can Either Accept
Or Refuse The Connection.
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If The Request Is Accepted, The Two Systems
Begin Full-duplex Information Transfer.
Either DTE Device Can Terminate The Connection.
After The Session Is Terminated, Any Further
Communication Requires The Establishment Of A New
Session.
X.25 Limitation
X.25 Networks Cannot Forward The Packets
Until They Have Been Completely Received,
Resulting In Transit Delays.
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WHAT IS ROUTING?
ROUTING PRINCIPLES
ROUTING TYPES / ROUTING STRATEGIES
WHAT IS ROUTING?
In Circuit Switching, Routing is a
process in which a dedicated circuit is
established for the duration of the Tx of each
message.
In Packet Switching, Routing is the process of
moving packets across a network from one
host to a another.
It is usually performed by dedicated devices
called routers.
Routing Principles
The goal of routing in a comms network is
to direct user traffic from a source to the
correct destination in accordance with the
networks service requirements.
The service requirements for a given
network are often expressed as a set of
objectives.
Routing in Circuit Switched Network
In Circuit switched networks,

many connections will need
different paths through more than
one switching node during peak
hours, failures, breakdowns /
outages, network congestions, etc.
Routing Types Strategies

Alternate Routing:
Different routing scenarios are used and possible
routes b/n end offices predefined.
Originating switches select appropriate routes.
Because Routes are listed in order of preference,
different sets of routes may be used at different
times
Adaptive Routing:
Used by almost all packet switching networks.
Here, Routing decisions change as conditions
(Failures, Congestions, etc) on the network
change.
Since routing decisions in this case are more
complex, information about the network is
required.
Dynamic Routing:
A Dynamic Routing system selects
routes based on current state
information for the network.
The state information can be predicted or
measured but,
The route will change depending on the
available state information at the time of
the traffic request.
Fixed Routing:
Single permanent route for each
source destination pair is established.
Routes are determined using a least cost
algorithm, and
Determined routes are fixed at least until
changes in network topologies occur.
Flooding Routing:
When Applying Link-state Algorithms,
Each Node Uses As Its Fundamental Data,
A Map Of The Network In The Form Of A
Graph.
To Produce This, Each Node Floods The Entire
Network With Information About What Other
Nodes It Can Connect To,
Each Node Then Independently Assembles This
Information Into A Map.
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A typical Fixed Route Topology

and a Routing Table
NETWORK CONTROL SIGNALING
What is Network Control?

Network Control Is The Tx Of Signals Or
Messages That Perform Call Control,
Equipment Configuration, Or Information
Mgt Functions.
Network control can be centralized or

distributed.
The control of PSTN is a centralized system as
call processing is coordinated through a
controlled common channel signalling (CCS)
network.
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Control Signaling
Signalling is the Generation, Tx & Reception of

Information needed to Direct & Control the
Setups and Disconnections of Calls.
It is the method used for the switching
Exchs & the CPE to control the
switching of calls over the tx facilities in
the PSTN.
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Kinds of signal include:

Addressing Outpulsing of dialed digits;
Information signals Dial tone, audible ring,
busy back tone, reorder, etc.
Supervision Off-hook, on-hook, seizures.
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Control Signals Are Used In Switching To:

Manage The Establishment, Maintenance,
Termination Of Connections.
They Include Signaling From Subscriber To
Network, & Signals Within The Network.
This Process Is Known As Control Signaling.
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Control Signals are of Two Types:

In-channel Signalling uses the same channel
for both traffic and control signals.
Each trunk line will have its independent
control signalling.
Common Channel Signalling (CCS) uses a
channel specifically for carrying control
signals for a large number of traffic channels
(D Channels in ISDN carry control signals).
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Signalling & Control

This Refers To The Internal
Communications Functions That Must
Take Place Within A Network In Order
To Ensure That It Operates Properly
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The Various Elements Of A Network

Must Have The Capability To Signal
(I.e., Alert & Inform) Each Other,
Indicating Their Status &
Condition.
Typical Status Indications Include Available
(Dial Tone), Unavailable (Busy), & Alerting
(Ringing Signal).
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The Endpoints (I.e., Terminal Devices)

Or End Offices Also Must Pass
Identification Information &
Instructions, Such As:
The Originating Address,
The Target Address,
The Pre-selected Carrier.
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Two basic types of signalling and control:

a) In-Band Signalling
b)Out-Of-Band Signalling
In-band Signalling
In the PSTN, in-band signalling is the exchange
of signalling (call control) information within the
same channel that the telephone call itself is
using.
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ii) Out-of-band Signalling

Out-of-band Signalling Is Telecom
Signalling (Exchange Of Information In Order
To Control A Telephone Call) That Is Done On
A Dedicated Channel
It I Is Separated From The Channels Used For
The Telephone Call.
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Out-of-band Signalling Is Used In

Signalling System #7 (SS7),
The Standard For Signalling Among Exchanges That
Controls Most Of The World's Phone Calls For More
than 30 Years Now.
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Channel-associated Versus Common-channel

Signalling
Channel-associated Signalling Employs A
Signalling Channel Which Is Dedicated To A Specific
Bearer Channel.
Common-channel Signalling It Employs A Signalling
Channel Which Conveys Signalling Information
Relating To Multiple Bearer Channels.
These Bearer Channels Therefore Have Their Signalling
Channel In Common.
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The Signalling System #7 (SS7)

There are two essential components to all
telephone calls.
The first, and most obvious, is the actual content
our voices, faxes, modem data, etc.
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The Second Is The Information That Instructs

Telephone Exchanges To Establish Connections
And Route The Content To An Appropriate
Destination.
Telephony Signaling Is Concerned With The
Creation Of Standards For The Latter To
Achieve The Former.
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These Standards Are Known As

Protocols.
SS7 Is Simply Another Set Of
Protocols That Describe A Means Of
Communication Between Telephone
Switches In Public Telephone
Networks.
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They Have Been Created And Controlled

By Various Bodies Around The
World,
Which Leads To Some Specific Local Variations,
But The Principal Organization With Responsibility
For Their Administration Is The ITU-T.
SS#7 Or C7 Is The Protocol Used By The Telephone
Companies For Interoffice Signalling.
In The Past, In-band Signalling Techniques Were Used
On Interoffice Trunks.
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SS7 Architecture
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a) SS7 Protocol Layers:

The SS7 network is an interconnected set of
network elements that is used to exchange
messages in support of telecommunications functions.
The SS7 Protocol Is Designed
To
Both Facilitate These
Functions And To
Maintain The Network Over Which They Are
Provided.
Like Most Modern Protocols, The Ss7 Protocol Is
Layered.
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b)
Physical Layer (MTP-1):
This Defines The Physical And Electrical

Characteristics Of The Signaling Links Of
The SS7 Network.
Signaling Links Utilize Ds0 Channels And
Carry Raw Signaling Data At A Rate Of 56
Kbps Or 64 Kbps (56 Kbps Is The More
Common Implementation).
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c) Message Transfer PartLevel 2 (MTP-2):

The Level 2 Portion Of The Message
Transfer Part (MTP Level 2) Provides Linklayer Functionality.
It Ensures That The Two End Points Of A
Signaling Link Can Reliably Exchange
Signalling Messages.
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Message Transfer PartLevel 3 (MTP-3):
The Level 3 Portion Of The Message

Transfer Part (MTP Level 3) Extends The
Functionality Provided By MTP Level 2 To
Provide Network Layer Functionality.
Etc.
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END OF MODULE
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MODULE 4
TRANSMISSION MEDIA FOR
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
OVERVIEW
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA
TRANSMISSION MEDIA FOR TRUNKS

Communication involves the transfer of
information in the form of text, graphic images,
sound or moving pictures from one place to
another.
The media through which this transfer takes
place is called the Transmission Media.
Transmission media refers to the physical means
by which information is transferred.
These include:
- Equipment and systemsMetal or
Electrical Wires, Coaxial Cables, Radio
or Microwave Links, Satellite Links,
and infra- red optical systems
employed in the transmission of
electromagnetic signals.
What is Transmission?
Transmission is the means and the use
of electronic devices to establish
communication channels and trunks
for the purpose of sending (receiving)
information from one place to another
or to multi-points.
What are Transmission Media?
Transmission media are the network highways

that provide paths for communications devices.
There is a general tendency to say that one
transmission medium is better than another.
In fact, each transmission medium has its place
in the design of any telecommunications system.
Each has characteristics which will make it

the ideal medium to use based on a
particular set of circumstances.
Factors to consider when choosing
transmission media include:
- Cost,
- Ease of installation and
maintenance,
- Availability, and most important, Efficiency of transmission.
Types of Transmission Media

There are two 2 basic categories of
Transmission Media.
These are:
Guided Transmission Media
Un-guided Transmission Media
Guided transmission media use

a cabling system that guides the
data signals along a specific path.
The data signals are bound by the
cabling system.
Unguided transmission media consist
of a means for the data signals to travel
but nothing to guide them along a
specific path.
There are five basic types of Guided Transmission

Media:
-
Open Wire Cable;

Twisted Pair Cable;
Coaxial Cable;
Submarine Cable;
Optical Fibre
- Each medium has advantages and disadvantages.

- Which medium is best depends upon the purpose of the
communications system and the desired end results.
The Copper Wire

There are Four primary types of cables
containing copper wire used for
communication:
- Open
- Untwisted;
- Twisted Pairs;
- Coaxial cables
Open Wire
Open wire is traditionally used to describe
the electrical wire strung along power poles.
There is a single wire strung between poles.
Untwisted Pair
Two insulated wires molded into a straight,

flat, parallel pair cable can be used for
short distance.
APPLICATION: OH Telephone Lines
Twisted Pairs
The wires in twisted pair cabling are twisted
together in pairs.
Each pair consists of a wire used for the +ve data
signal and a wire used for the -ve data signal.
Any noise that appears on 1 wire of

the pair will also occur on the other
wire.
Because the wires have opposite polarities,
they are 180 degrees out of phase.
When noise appears on both wires, it
cancels or nulls itself out at the receiving
end.
APPLICATIONS
Twisted Pair Cables have become the most
common form of transmission media used today
having applications in telephone and computer
networks
Twisted pair cables are most effectively used in
systems that use a balanced line method of
transmission: polar line coding (Manchester
Encoding) as opposed to unipolar line coding
(TTL logic).
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Cables with shields are called shielded
twisted pair and are commonly abbreviated STP.
Coaxial Cable
The second transmission medium to be
introduced was coaxial cable (often called coax),
which began being deployed in telephony
networks around the mid-1920s.
Why the Name Co-Axial?

Coaxial cable is called Coaxial" because it
includes one physical channel (the Copper Core)
that carries the signal surrounded by another
concentric physical channel and an outer cover
or sheath, all running along the same axis.
Characteristics of Coaxial Cable

Coax affords a great deal more frequency
spectrum than does twisted-pair.
Traditional coaxial cable television networks
generally support 370MHz.
Newer deployments, such as Hybrid Fibre Coax
(HFC) architectures, support 750MHz or
1,000MHz systems.
Therefore, coax provides from 370 to 1,000 times
more capacity than single twisted-pair.
Coaxial Cable Applications

In the mid-1920s, coax was applied to telephony
networks as interoffice trunks.
Instead of adding more copper cable bundles
with 1,500 or 3,000 pairs of copper wires in
them, it was possible to replace those big cables
with a much smaller coaxial cable.
Deployed as submarine cable to carry
international traffic.
OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE

What is Optical Fibre?
Optical Fibre Or Fibre Optics Refers To The Medium
And The Technology Associated With The Transmission
Of Information As Light Impulses Along A Strand Of
Glass.
A Fibre Optic Strand Carries Much More Information
Than Conventional Copper Wire And Is Far Less
Subject To Electro-magnetic Interference (EMI).
Almost All Telephone Long-distance (Cross Country)
Lines Are Now Fibre Optic.
Characteristics of Fibre Optics

Optical Fibre Consists Of A Glass / Plastic Core
Surrounded By A Cladding With A Higher
Refractive Index.
Data Is Carried As Pulses Of Light From A Laser Or
High-power Light Emitting Diode (LED).
The Light Pulses Are Contained Within The Core As A
Result Of Internal Total Reflection.
Optical Fibre Is Non-electrical, & Therefore

Completely Immune From Electrical
Radiation & Interference Problems.
Each Fibre Optic Strand Can Support Thousands
Of Speech Channels & Multiple TV Channels
Simultaneously.
High Bandwidths Give Enormous Tx Capacity For
National & Intercontinental Links & Greater
Distances Can Be Tolerated Between Repeaters.
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Tx Over Fiber Optic Strands Requires Repeating

(Or Regeneration) At Varying Intervals.
The Spacing Bn These Intervals Is Greater
(Potentially More Than 100 Km, Or 50 Miles)
Than Copper Based Systems.
Comparitively, A High Speed Electrical Signal Such As:

A E1 / T1 Signal Carried Over Twisted-pair Must Be
Repeated Every 1.8 Kilometers.
Fibre Cables Are Produced In Two Basic Forms:

Loose Tube Buffered Cable &
Tight Buffered Cable
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Optical Fibre Construction

Optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers that
can carry information at frequencies in the
visible light spectrum and beyond.
Typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow

strand of glass called the core.
Around The Core Is A Concentric Layer

Of Glass Called The Cladding.
A Typical Core Diameter Is 62.5 Microns (1
Micron = 10-6 Meters).
Typically Cladding Has A Diameter Of 125
Microns.
Coating The Cladding Is A Protective Coating
Consisting Of Plastic, It Is Called The Jacket.
A typical core diameter is 62.5 microns

(1 micron = 10-6 meters).
An Important Characteristic Of Fiber Optics Is

Refraction.
Refraction Is The Characteristic Of A Material To
Either Pass Or Reflect Light.
When Light Passes Through A Medium, It "Bends" As
It Passes From One Medium To The Other.
Optical Fibre has Total Internal Reflection Xtics.
Hence, Fibre Experiences No Attenuation.
Types Of Fiber-optic Cable

Fiber-optic Cable Is Available In Many Sizes.
It Can Have As Few As A Couple Of Pairs Of Fiber Or
It Can Have Bundles That Contain Upward Of 400 Or 500
Fiber Pairs.
Each Of The Fibers Is Protected With Cladding,
Which Ensures That The Light Energy Remains Within
The Fiber Rather Than Bouncing Out Into The Exterior.
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Basic Fibre Optic Strand Constructions
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Fibre Optic Cable Illustration

Fibre Strands & Cables Are Manufactured With A
Standard Colour Coding.
This Permits Effective Mgt Of Cables Because Of The Normally
High Strand Counts Contained Within A Cable.
There Are 24 Colour Combinations Used. A Loose Buffer Tube
Cable With 576 Strands Would Have 24 Tubes Coloured.
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Fibre Optic Colour Coding
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Fiber-optic Cable
Light Sources
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes.
The cheaper, lower-performer category is LEDs.
LEDs are relatively inexpensive, they have a long
life, and they are rather tolerant of extreme
temperatures.
Laser diodes are capable of much higher
transmission speeds than LEDs.
Electrical Signal V Optical Signal
Twisted Copper Pairs & Coaxial Cables Transmit

Signals In Electrical Form As A Flow Of Electrons.
By Contrast, Optical Fibre Transmits Signals In The Form
Of Pulses Of Light Generated By Miniature Lasers &
Received By Diodes.
Both Forms Of TX Travel At The Fastest Speed Known To
Physics, The Speed Of Light
Approximately 300,000 Km Per Second.
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How Fiber-Optic Transmission Works

In Fiber-optic Tx, The Digital Bit-stream Enters
The Light Source:
The Laser Diode Light Emitting Doide.
If A One Bit Is Present, The Light Source Pulses Light In
That Time Slot,
But If A Bit Is Zero, There Is No Light Pulse.

Thus, The Absence Or Presence Of Light Represents
The Discrete 1s & 0s.
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Fiber-optic Transmission
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Advantages of Optical Fibre:

-
Noise Immunity:
RFI and EMI immune,
EMI -Electromagnetic Interference)
Security: Cannot Tap Into Cable
Large Capacity Due To Huge BW (Bandwidth)
No Corrosion
Longer Distances Than Copper Wire
Smaller & Lighter Than Copper Wire
Faster Tx Rates
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre:

Much More Costly Than Other Cables To Install
Relatively, Difficult To Install
Susceptibility To Physical & Wildlife damages
Physical Vibration Will Show Up As Signal Noise.
Though, Fibre Optic Cable Has Very Little Disadvantages,
These Will Immediately & Adversely Affect Consumers
Choice To Install This Technology.
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Applications of Fiber Optics

Fiber has a number of key applications.
It is used in both public and private network
backbones, so the vast majority of the backbones
of the PSTNs worldwide have been upgraded to
fiber.
The backbones of Internet providers are fiber.
Cable TV systems and power utilities have
reengineered and upgraded their backbones to
fiber as well.
SUBMARINE COMMUNICATIONS CABLE

A Submarine Communications Cable Is A Cable Laid Beneath The
Sea To Carry Telecommunication Signals B/n Countries.
The First Submarine Communications Cables Carried Telegraphy
Traffic.
Subsequent Generations Of Submarine Cables Carried First
Telephony Traffic,
Then Data Communications Traffic.
All Modern Submarine Cables Use Fibre Optic Technology To
Carry Digital Payloads,
Which Are Then Used To Carry Telephone Traffic:
Internet & Private Data Traffic.
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Basic Submarine Cable Connection Technology

The Maximum Depth The Trans-pacific Submarine
Communication Cable Passes Through Is About
8,000 M.
As The Maximum Length Of Manufactured Submarine
Cables Is 30 - 40 Kilometers, Connectors Are Necessary For
Them To Cover Long Distances.
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Technical Conditions Necessary For Submarine

Cable Connecting Are:
No Deformation Caused By Pressure, Even At
Depths Of 8,000 M.
No Decrease In Insulation Performance As Power Is
Supplied To Relays
Long-term Stability To Match The Designed Life Of 25
Years.
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Fibre Cable Joint Box (JB)
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A cross-section of a submarine communications cable.

1.Polyethylene.
2.Mylar Tape.
3.Stranded Steel Wires.
4.Aluminum Water Barrier.
5.Polycarbonate.
6.Copper Or Aluminum Tube.
7.Petroleum Jelly.
8.Optical Fibers.
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Submarine Fiber Optic Cable (Undersea Fiber

Optic Cable)
Submarine Cables Are Used In Fresh Or Salt Water.
To Protect Them From Damage By Fishing Trawlers & Boat
Anchors They Have Elaborately Designed Structures & Armors.
Long Distance Submarine Cables
Are Especially Complex Designed.
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Submarine Cables Are Laid Using Special Cable-laying

Ships, Such As The Modern Ren Descartes, Operated
By France Tlcom Marine.
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Maps Of Submarine Cables Throughout The World

As At 2007
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Unguided Tx media is data signals that flow
through the air.
They are not guided or bound to a channel to follow.
They are classified by the type of wave propagation.
There are three types of RF (radio frequency)
propagation:
- Ground Wave Propagation
- Ionospheric Propagation
- Line of Sight (LOS) Propagation
Ground wave propagation follows the

curvature of the Earth.
Ionospheric Propagation Bounces Off Of

The
Earth's Ionospheric Layer In The
Upper Atmosphere.
It Is Sometimes Called Double Hop Propagation.
Line Of Sight Propagation Transmits

Exactly In The Line Of Sight.
The Receive Station Must Be In The
View Of The Transmit Station.
It Is Sometimes Called Space Wave Or
Tropospheric Propagation.
Microwave Transmission Medium

Microwave Technology was used during
World War II in military applications,
When It Was Successful In That Environment, It Was
Introduced Into Commercial Communications.
Microwave was deployed in the PSTN as a

replacement for coaxial cable in the late 1940s.
Microwave Tx Is Line Of Sight Tx.

The transmit station must be in visible
contact with the receive station.
Satellite Transmission Medium

What Are Satellites?
Satellites Are Artificial Space Crafts Or
Transponders (Units That Receive On One
Frequency & Retransmit On Another)
That Are Set In Geostationary Orbits Directly
Over The Equator.
These geostationary orbits are Approx.

36,000 km from the Earth's surface.
At this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth
and the centrifugal force of Earth's rotation are
balanced and cancel each other out.
Hence, The Satellite hangs & Flots Without

Falling.
Centrifugal Force Is The

Rotational Force Placed On
The Satellite That Wants To
Fling It Out Into Space.
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Satellite Footprints, Up & Down Links
The Footprint Is The "Shadow" That The

Satellite Can Transmit To.
The Shadow Being The Coverage Area That Can
Receive The Satellite's Transmitted Signal.
Satellites Broadcasting Systems
Satellite Orbits
An important factor that affects the use &
application of satellites is the orbits in which they operate.
There are three major orbits:
Geosynchronous orbit (GEO),
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), and
Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
A 4th & non-major Orbit: HEO

The majority of communications satellites in use are GEOs.
Geosynchronous-orbit Satellite
Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs)

VSATs Business enterprises use VSAT networks as a
means of private networking, essentially setting up
point-to-point links or connections between two locales.
TRANSMISSION IN THE PSTN
Tx Parameters
In Mathematics, Statistics, Engineering, Etc.,
Parameters (Auxiliary Measures) Are Quantities
That Define Certain Characteristics & Status Of
Functions Or Systems.
In Telecommunications, & For That Matter, In Tx,
Parameters Are The Properties Or Measured
Variables Of Tx Systems.
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Some Transmission Parameters Include:

FTX - Transmitting Frequency,
FRX Receiving Frequency,
PT Transmitting Power,
GT Tx Gain
BW Tx Bandwidth (Capacity),
Attenuation,
Fading,
Noise Factor (F),
Distortion,
Echo,
Standing Wave Ratio,
Antenna Diameter,
Antenna Efficiency;
QoS.
Etc.
Academic excellence in
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245
Analogue Transmission
Analogue Tx Is A Method Of Conveying Voice,
Data, Image, Signal Or Video Information Using
A Continuous Signal (Carrier) Which Varies In:
Amplitude,
Phase, Or
Some Other Property In Proportion To That Of A
Variable Input Signal.
Analogue Signals Have A Continuous Wave-like Form.
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Digital Transmission
This Is A Transmission System In Which:
(A)All Circuits Carry Digital Signals
(B).
(B) The Signals Are Combined Into One
Or More Serial Bit Streams That Include
All Framing And Supervisory Signals.
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Note: A-D / D-A conversion, if

required, is accomplished externally
to the system.
Digital signals are discrete in form and
essentially represent power on or off or
To use the binary language of computers
zeros (0s) & ones (1s).
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Digital Signals Can Be REGENERATED OR

Recreated At Their Destination In Exactly The
Form They Left Their Starting Point
Despite Any Distortion Along The Way, Since
The Only Two Possibilities For The Original
Signal Are 0s & 1s.
All Communications Networks Whether
Telecommunications Or Broadcasting, Whether Fixed Or
Mobile
Are Increasingly Becoming Digital Because The
Quality Of The Signal Is So Much Better & The
Capacity Of The Network Is So Much Greater.
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END
OF
MODULE
4
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MODULE 5
ANALOGUE NETWORKS, MODEMS &
MULTIPLEXORS
ASSIGNMENT:
Prepare A 15 Page Note On The Following Headings.
Font Size Is 12 Points. Deadline: 16/09/15.
MODEMs
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING ,
CLASSICAL TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
STATISTICAL TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
PDH NETWORKS (E1 - E4, T1 - T4)
SONET/SDH (STS-N, STM-N, OC-N, PACKET FORMATS/PAYLOAD)
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MODULE 6
ISDN NETWORK &
EQUIPMENT /
PACKET SWITCHED NETWORKS
& X.25 NETWORK
ISDN CHANNELS (B & D CHANNELS),

N-ISDN SERVICES (BRI & PRI).
ISDN DEVICES & NETWORK POINTS.
THE PASSIVE BUS, BASIC ISDN ADDRESSING.
ISDN EQUIPMENT (BRIDGES/ROUTERS,
ISDN PHONES, FAX MACHINES, TERMINAL
ADAPTERS, SYNCHRONOUS PC CARDS)
PVC, SVC, DTE & DCE, LCN, SVC ADDRESSES
X.25 NETWORK TE, X.25 PAD, CONNECTING TO
X.25, ISDN D CHANNEL SERVICE, X.25 LAPB,
X.25 PLP
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255
ISDN OVERVIEW
Anticipating user demand for end-to-end
digital services, the world's telecom
companies agreed in 1984 under the auspices
of ITU-T to build a new, fully digital, circuitswitched telephone system by the early part of the 21st
century.
This system was called Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN)
Its Primary Goal Was To Integrate The Voice & Nonvoice Services.
ISDN EXPLAINED
ISDN system allows voice and data to be transmitted
simultaneously across the world using end-to-end digital
connectivity.
With ISDN, voice and data are carried by bearer channels (B
channels) occupying a bandwidth of 64 kb/s.
Some switches limit B channels to a capacity of 56 kb/s.
A data channel (D channel) handles signalling at 16 kb/s or 64
kb/s, depending on the service type.
Technically, What Exactly is the ISDN?

ISDN is basically the telephone network
modified All-digital End-to-end, using
existing
switches and wiring (for the most
part):
Upgraded So That The Basic "Call" Is A 64 Kbps End-to-end
Channel.
The ISDN is a set of international standards for access to

advanced, All-digital -PTNs.
The Key Elements Of ISDN Are:
Integrated Services:
Voice
Video - Image
Data
Mixed media at a number of standard data rates.
Digital:
Digital terminal equipment

Digital local loops
Digital trunks
Digital switching
Digital signalling
Network:
Worldwide,
Interoperating Communications Fabric Under Distributed Control Using
Common Standards.
ISDN BACKGROUND
Before ISDN was introduced, dedicated
networks were required to provide services of
different nature, e.g.
POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service)
Analogue Service,
Packet Service,
Telex Service,
Data Service, Etc.
Different networks were required because

of the very different
Tx
Xtics.
Dedicated and isolated network
requirements lead to a number of
drawbacks:
High Costs,
Low Efficiency, &
Inconveniences.
HOW ISDN WORKS

ISDN carries voice and data on bearer (B)
channels which transmit at 64 Kbps each.
Data (D) Channel -Delta Channel, operates at 16
or 64 Kbps and provides signaling to:
Construct & Tear Down A Connection,
Request Network Services, &
Route Data Over The B Channels.
The D channel - used to transmit

user packet or frame data at
times when bandwidth on the
D channel is not required for signaling
and control.
Utilizing the D channel in this way
provides the most efficient use of ISDN.
ISDN Has Three Different Services:

1) Basic Rate Interface (BRI),
2) Primary Rate Interface (PRI), And
3) Broadband (B-ISDN).
BRI is the most common service for

residential customers.
BRI services provide two B channels and
one D channel (2B+D).
PRI services are implemented differently in
North America & Japan than in Europe
where they are the most common services.
European PRI services deliver 30 B channels & one

D channel (30B+D).
North American and Japanese PRI services consist
of 23 B channels and one D channel (23B+D).
B-ISDN will support up to 622 Mbps Tx rates over a

fiber optic network.
One Major Advantage Of The ISDN Architecture Is Its Dynamic
Bandwidth Allocation Feature A.K.A:
Bandwidth-on-demand,
Inverse Multiplexing, &
Channel Aggregation.
Access to ISDN
Two types of ISDN Access have been specified:
Narrowband-ISDN (N-ISDN)
Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN).
The main difference between N-ISDN and B-ISDN is
Tx Capacity
Transfer Mode.
N-ISDN can serve with a capacity of up to 2Mbps,
B-ISDN specifications are for:
150Mbps &
600Mbps.
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Benefits of ISDN
ISDN affords many benefits to service
providers and customers:
Simultaneous audio, video, and data services over a single
pair of copper wires reduce infrastructure and maintenance
costs for service provisioning
ISDN is compatible with other WAN services like:
X.25,
Frame Relay,
Switched Multi-megabit Data Services (SMDS) &
higher speed services like:
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).
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In the context of ISDN standards, Standard

Devices refers not to actual hardware, but to
standard collections of functions that can
usually be performed by
individual
hardware units.
Sample of ISDN Configuration Illustrating

Relationships B/n Devices & Reference Points
ISDN Access Reference Model
ET - Exchange Terminal
TA - Terminal Adaptor
LT - Line Terminal
TE1 - ISDN Terminal
NT1 - Network Termination 1
TE2 - Non-ISDN Terminal
NT2 - Network Termination 2
R,S,T,U,V Reference points
ISDN Reference Points Include The Following:
RThe reference point b/n non-ISDN

equipment & a TA.
SThe reference point b/n user terminals & the NT2.
TThe reference point b/n NT1 & NT2 devices.

UThe reference point b/n NT1 devices and line-termination
equipment in the carrier network.
Note: The U reference point is relevant only in North America,
where the NT1 function is not provided by the carrier
network.
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Sample ISDN Configuration Illustrates

Relationships Between Devices & Ref Points
The NT1, LT and ET is provided by

Telecom Operators as an inherent
part of the ISDN service.
The TA may also be provided with some
service offerings.
The interface is functionally organized into
the first three layers of the ISO Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) 7-layer
model.
Advantages of ISDN
a)Speed
Modems have maximum speeds of 56 kb/s, but
are limited by the quality of the analogue
connection and routinely go about 45-50 kb/s.
Some phone lines do not support 56 kb/s
connections at all.
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b) Multiple Devices
Previously, it was necessary to have a separate

phone line for each device we wished to use
simultaneously.
E.g., one line each was required for a telephone,
fax, computer, bridge / router, and live video
conference system.
Today only one fixed line carries these services in
one conductor.
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ISDN STANDARDS.
The OSI model was adopted to develop a
suite of ISDN related standards.
The standards also ensure interoperability
and compatibility between equipment in a
multi-vendor environment.
The OSI-ISDN Standard Model
The Layer 1 defines the ITU-T I.430 and

ITU-T I.431 - User-network interfaces at
S- and T-reference points for BRI &
PRI
Interfaces respectively.
The other two upper layers, Layer 2 and
Layer 3, are defined to enable signalling to
be accomplished independently of the type of
user-network interface involved.
The characteristics of Layers 2 & 3 are specified
in ITU-T Q.921 and Q.931 respectively.
ISDN Protocols
The ISDN protocols are signalling protocols that
govern the exchange of data on the D channel.
The two ISDN signalling protocols make up a
layered protocol stack, with the Link Access
Protocol for the D Channel (LAPD), providing:
Layer 2 data-link services
Layer 3 - Network Layer (higher-layer services).
ISDN Interfaces and Functions:
The ISDN Interface

The ISDN bit pipe supports multiple
channels interleaved by TDM
techniques.
Several channel types have been
standardized:
A - 4 kHz analogue telephone channel

B - 64 kbps digital PCM channel for voice / data
C - 8 or 16 kbps digital channel for out-of-band
signalling
D - 16 kbps digital channel for out-of-band signalling
E - 64 kbps digital channel for internal ISDN signalling
H - 384, 1536, or 1920 kbps digital channel / bearer.
(a)Basic Rate Digital Pipe.

(B) Primary Rate Digital Pipe.
Channel Types : BRI and PRI

The BRI has 144 kbps information carrying
capacity.
PRI is designed to accommodate appns
requiring more than two simultaneous
connection and/or data rate in excess of 64
kbps.
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The two distinct configurations are 23B+D

structure at 1.544 Mbps and 30B+D running at
1.920 Mbps.
In some cases more than one PRI connects
between equipment are deployed.
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ISDN UNI Structure
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Each Of The 64 Kbps B Channels Can Handle:

A Single PCM Voice Channel
With 8 Bits Samples
Made 8000 Times Per Second.
The Separate Channel For Signalling Results In:
A Significantly Faster Setup Time.
Primary Rate:
23B + 1D (US and Japan) or
30B + 1D (Europe).
It is intended for use at the T reference
point for businesses with a PBX.
Hybrid: 1A + 1C
FUNCTIONS OF ISDN INTERFACES
(Standard Reference Points)

The ISDN Standards Specify 4 Distinct
Interfaces In The Customer's Connection
To The Network:
R Interface
S
T
U
The R Interface:
The Reference Point R is the:
Physical & logical interface b/n a non-ISDN terminal
device & a Terminal Adapter (TA).
The S Interface:
The Reference point S is the physical & logical interface
b/n a TE (or TA) & a NT.
It uses four wires
Employs a bipolar Tx technique known as:
Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)
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The T Interface:
Reference point T is the physical and
logical interface between NT1 & NT2, whenever the
two NTs are implemented as separate pieces of hardware.
The U Interface:
Reference point U is the physical and logical interface
between NT (or NT2) and the ISDN carrier's local Tx loop.
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Interface Applications
The PRI T channels are typically used by medium to
large enterprises with digital PBXs to provide them
Digital access to the PSTN and to the Digital Switched
Network.
The 23 (or 30) B-channels can be used:
Flexibly & Reassigned When Necessary To:
Meet Special Needs, Such As Videoconferences.
The Primary Rate User Is Hooked Up Directly To The Telephone
Company Central Office.
ISDN Applications
a)ISDN in Business:
For business users & residential subscribers, videoconferencing is
the biggest communication advancement that ISDN has to offer.
b) ISDN in Education:
Students will reap the benefits of videoconferencing by:
Relating with other students worldwide.
Using the video capabilities of ISDN allows students to:
see the surroundings of other countries or speak with
pen-pals.
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c) Security and Digital Networking

Security issues are a prime concern for digital Txs.
Although data encryption schemes can alleviate the
problem, other security issues prevail.
Without A Means To Monitor Encrypted Network Traffic,
There Could Be No Detection Or
Intervention Of Illegal Activities Taking Place Over The
Public Network.
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ISDN Call Control Procedure

There are three phases in a basic call
control procedure in ISDN:
Call Set Up;
User Data Transfer;
Call Clear-down.
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Call control procedure of an ISDN circuit switched call

Basic Call Transmission Sequence
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ISDN USER-NETWORK INTERFACE

CONFIGURATIONS
USER-NETWORK INTERFACE
ISDN Services Are Offered By The

Network To A User Via An Interface That
Provides Either Basic Access, Consisting Of One
16 Kbit/S D-channel And Up To Two 64 Kbit/S Bchannels, Or Primary Rate Access, Consisting Of
One 64 Kbit/S D-channel And Up To 30 + 64
Kbit/S B-channels.
ISDN ACCESS INTERFACES

ITU-T I.412 defines different interface structures
for ISDN user-network physical interfaces at the
S- and T ISDN reference points.
These include:
- Basic Rate Interface structure
- Primary Rate B-channel interface structure
- Primary Rate H-channel interface structure
- Primary Rate Interface structures for mixtures of B and
H0-channels
Basic Rate Interface Structure
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Primary Rate B-Channel Interface

Structure
This illustrates the use of E1 primary rate
connecting a PBX to the central office.
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ISDN NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

ISDN provides complete digital capabilities.
An ISDN user can access the following services
using an ISDN Terminal Equipment (TE):
Packet-switched data
Circuit-switched data
Circuit-switched voice
User-to-user signalling
ISDN Configurations
Multiple Line Services
ISDN services can be supplied in three different
configurations from the ISDN-ready digital
switch to a business or residence.
The alternatives are:
1. Through a direct BRI connection from an
ISDN switch.
One or more BRI connections are made from the
Exch to a business or home.
2. Through ISDN Centrex service.

One or more BRI connections are made to
ISDN Centrex service which offers the advantage
of having the ISDN switch function as the
switching system.
3.Through a PRI Connection

23/30 B channels and one D channel is connected
to a business through a PBX.
ISDN PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

Protocols & Frame Structure
Protocols in ISDN are based on the ISDN-PRM
(ISDN-Protocol Reference Model), following the
principles of the ISO/OSI-RM
The ISDN-PRM consists of two different planes:
User Plane
Control Plane.
ISDN - PRM
ISDN Address Field

The ISDN Address Field is composed of Terminal
End-point Identifier (TEI) and Service Access
Point Identifier (SAPI).
The TEI identifies the user device.
Assigned Automatically Or
In A Fixed Manner, By The Switch.
ISDN Address Field
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Flag Field
The opening and closing flags are used for frame
synchronization.
The flags of a frame serve as a unique marker to delimit its
beginning & end and consist of the
symmetric bit pattern 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.
In order to have each device support multiple logical data
links, the data link address is divided into:
Service Access Point Identifier (SAPI) &
Terminal End point Identifier (TEI).
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LAPD: SAPI
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6.10
ISDN LAYERS
ISDN Layers are derived from the

following listed International Networking
7 OSI Model.
These are: Physical Layer; Data Layer; Network
Layer; Transport Layer Section LAYER;
Presentation Layer; Application Layer.
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ISDN Layers
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Physical Layer (ITU-T I.430, I.431)

The Physical Layer is responsible:
Encoding of digital data for Tx across the
interface
Full-duplex Tx of B- channel data
Full-duplex Tx of D- channel data
.Etc.
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Data Link Layer Protocol: LAPD
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Flag
In order to ensure that the bit pattern of
the frame delimiter flag does not appear in
the data field of the frame (can cause frame
misalignment), a technique known as Bit
Stuffing is used by both the Txter and the Rxver.
Address Field
The first two bytes of the frame after the header flag is
known as the address field.
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The Control Field

It Identifies The Type Of:
Frame,
Sequence Numbers,
Control Features &
Error Tracking According To The Frame Type.
FCS
The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) Enables A High Level Of
Physical Error Control By:
Allowing The Integrity Of The Transmitted Frame Data
To Be Checked.
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Basic Function of LAPD Protocol

LAPD is used to convey messages over common
D channel.
The LAPD and higher layer protocols handle the hands
commands and responses, signalling, and control for all of
the voice and data calls that are setup through the ISDN D
channel.
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ISDN SERVICES
ISDN Services are the Telecommunications
Services to which the user has access either at
an ISDN interface or a terminal connected to the ISDN.
Two Different Groups Of Services Are Supported By
ISDN As Summarized Below.
Bearer Services &
Teleservices.
ISDN Bearer Services

With ISDN bearer services it is possible to transfer data b/n
subscribers.
The network is acting in this case as a bit pipe.
The Bearer Service is divided into:
Circuit Switched (CS) connections

Packet Switching (PS),
Connection Orientated (CO)
Connection-Less (CL) Modes.
ISDN Teleservices for BRI

Telephony:
This service enables subscribers to make phone
calls using the ISDN.
Improvement to the (partially) analogue
telephone- system.
It Offers:
- A better S/N ratio and the attenuation is unaffected by
distance.
- A greater voice bandwidth, e.g. 7kHz and stereo sound
for Audio Conferencing Services.
Mixed Service
This allows a combination of the Teletex and Telefax
service for the transmission of one document.
Possible to send a letter where the text is sent character
coded and a picture and/or signature is sent pixel coded.
Step in the direction of a Multimedia (consisting of Text,
Fax, Still Images with High Resolution, Graphics and
Voice) document Tx service in ISDN transmitted over the
BRI interface.
Video information is provided with B-ISDN.
Videophony
Used to transmit moving pictures from
person to person or person to group.
Low Tx rate (64kbps or 2x64kbps)
Quality of the video frames are inferior to
TV frames (480x240 Pixel).
Alarm Services
It is possible to make emergency calls
over ISDN, even if the power supply on
the user side breaks down and the Bchannels can not be used any more.
An emergency call is made over the Dchannel.
Messaging
This service provides a mailbox function
for the users.
Text and voice mail can be deposited in the
mailbox, if the user is not available or both of his
B-channels are busy.
The recipient is sent a message from his mailbox
over the d-Channel.
Receives the notification even if B-channels are
used at that time.
Videotex
A retrieval service which enables the
subscriber to view text and graphics based images /
info.
Other ISDN Services:

- Telewriting; For placing short messages (written with
an electronic pen on note pad) in a mailbox.
- Teleaction ; Used for controlling installations like
heating, gas, water.
Supplementary Services
What are ISDN Supplementary Services?
These are services that add value to existing ISDN services
(Value Added Services).
They include:
Calling line Identification (CLI);

Call Waiting & Forwarding;
Sub-addressing
Advice of Charge; Multiple Subscriber Numbering; Etc.
ISDN SIGNALING SYSTEM
There are three different types of

ISDN Signaling.
These are:
a) User network Signaling,
b)Intra-network Signaling, &
c) User-to-user Signaling.
BROADBAND ISDN
B-ISDN STANDARDS.
BROADBAND SERVICES.
B-ISDN ARCHITECTURE.
B-ISDN PROTOCOL REFERENCE MODEL,
B-ISDN PHYSICAL LAYER.
What is Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN)?

B-ISDN is a Telecommunications Service
requiring Tx channels capable of supporting
rates greater than the primary rate.
The N-ISDN was designed to operate over the
traditional communications infrastructure,
which have the copper cable as its main back
bone.
B-ISDN however, relies mainly on the evolution
of fibre optics.
B-ISDN allows its users to communicate over:

High Speed,
High Quality Digit Channels.
The media that B-ISDN supports include:

-
Fax,
Voice Telephone,
Video Telephone,
Audio,
High Definition TV (HDTV),
Computer Networking,
Etc.
B-ISDN BACKGROUND
The B-ISDN was designed in the 1990s as a logical
extension of the end-to-end circuit switched data service,
i.e., the ISDN.
The B-ISDN vision which was redesigned from the NISDN has been overtaken by the Internet Technology.
B-ISDN is very strongly related to the Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM).
Reason:
ATM provides a consistent data encapsulation
scheme that is used throughout the network, starting
with:
the TE1 or
TA equipment, &
Covering every piece of telecom equipment in use today.
ATM Is So Important To B-ISDN That Many People Believe
It's The Same Thing.
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Subscriber Connections
Implementing B-ISDN requires
deployment of fiber into the subscriber loop.
Multiplexing nodes would be placed between the
CO / Exchange and the subscribers,
With each multiplexing node connected to the CO by
a single fibre.
B-ISDN STANDARDS
The ITU-T Recommendation I.363 covers
the B-ISDN ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
Specification.
ATM has been selected as the B-ISDN

standard for transferring data.
ATM Signaling for B-ISDN

The Q.2931 is ITU version of signalling
protocol for B-ISDN
Q.2931 specifies the procedures for the
establishment, maintenance and clearing of
network connections at the B-ISDN user network
interface.
The procedures are defined in terms of messages
exchanged.
B-ISDN SERVICES
We Need To Examine Several Types Of

Multimedia Services And Subscriber
Network Architectures From The Service
Nodes To The Terminals On The B-ISDN
Network.
Interactive Services
a)Broadband Video Telephony Services
Video Telephony Is The Transfer Of Voice, Moving Pictures,
Scanned Images And Documents B/N Two Points.
This Technology Is Utilized In The Ff Areas:
Video Conferencing,
Video Surveillance,
Sales,
Consulting,
Teaching &
Legal Services.
b) High Speed unrestricted Data &

Information Tx Services
These types of service include:
LANs
WANs,
Internet &
Other Computer Networking.
Other Appns include:
Document Transfers,
Facsimile & Multimedia Documents,
Text,
Graphics,
Voice,
Audio Visual Information.
c) Messaging Services
Messaging Services is the Tx of info on a
user to user basis, but not requiring the availability of
both users at once.
Due to this area consisting mainly of text transfers it
doesn't take much of the available resources.
The appn of this is primarily:
Email,
Paging Services &
Many More.
BROADBAND ARCHITECTURE
The B-ISDN control architectures & protocols have
been defined by standardization bodies to provide
switched services over ATM transport networks.
Provide almost the same services as N-ISDN but with increased
bandwidth & Speed.
The method of providing such an evolution is the integration of :
IN concepts into the B-ISDN architecture
The B-ISDN Architecture,
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Implementation of this B-ISDN architecture

requires the following:
1) Upgrading of subscriber interfaces;
2) Conversion of N-ISDN switches to B-ISDN
switches;
3) Increasing the capacity of the Tx lines
interconnecting the switches (ie. PDH to SDH),
4) Replacing IP/LAPD packet switches with ATM
switches.
B-ISDN PROTOCOL REFERENCE MODEL
The B-ISDN protocol uses a three plane

approach:
User Plane
Control Plane
Mgt Plane
B-ISDN Protocol Reference Model

Management plane
Control plane
Higher Layers
User plane
Higher Layers
ATM Adaptation Layer

ATM Layer
Virtual Channel Functions
Planemanagement
Virtual Path Functions
Physical Layer (PMD)
Layer management
The user plane is responsible for user

information
The control plane manages the call-control
and connection-control functions, while the
management plane includes plane
management, and layer management.
B-ISDN PHYSICAL LAYER.

The B-ISDN Physical Layer is responsible
for basic physical layer activities such as:
-
Information synchronization,
Bit timing,
Tx Frame Generation & Recovery
Tx Frame Adaptation
Etc.
Possible configurations users can adopt

when connecting to a B-ISDN network.
B-ISDN Applications
The ITU-T defines the services and associated
standards of ISDN communications, and have
recommended the two service areas for
application with B-ISDN
These are:
- Interactive Services, &
- Distribution Services.
The two Service Areas for

Application with B-ISDN
Type of Service
SERVICE
CATEGORY
EXAMPLE
SERVICE
TV Services
Internal Services
Conventional
Services
Messaging Services
Retrieval Services
Videotex
Video Mail
Without User
Presentation Control TV Broadcast
Distribution Services
With User
Presentation Control Video-graphy
END OF MODEL 6
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MODULE 7
FRAME RELAY
INTRODUCTION
6.1 Background.
6.2 Protocols and Service
6.3 Frame-mode Protocol Architecture
6.4 Frame-mode Call Control
INTRODUCTION
Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN
protocol that operates at the physical and data
link layers of the OSI reference model.
Frame Relay originally was designed for use across
ISDN interfaces.
Today, it is used over a variety of other network
interfaces as well.
Frame Relay is an example of a packet-switched
technology.
What is Frame Relay Service?

Frame Relay is a telecom digital
connection-oriented data service that sends
packets of data, called frames, over
networks.
This frame of data is transmitted through
the network and checked for errors.
Frame Relay is designed for cost-efficient data

Tx for intermittent traffic between
LAN -to- LAN & b/n end-points in a WAN.
It's a data network service bundled with leased line
access for transmitting data between remote networks.
It Puts Data In A Variable-size Unit Called A
Frame And Leaves Any Necessary Error Correction
(Retransmission Of Data) Up To The End-points, Which
Speeds Up Overall Data Tx.
FRAME RELAY BACKGROUND
Frame Relay is a protocol standard for LAN internetworking

which provides a fast & efficient method of transmitting
information from a user device to LAN bridges & routers.
The Frame Relay protocol uses a frame
similar to that of LAPD, except that
is replaced by a
header field.
structured
the frame header
2-byte Frame Relay
The Frame Relay header contains the user-specified DLCI field,

which is the destination address of the frame.
It also contains congestion &

status signals which the network
sends to the user.
It is a communications networking
protocol that defines how frames are
routed through a fast-packet network
based on the address field in the frame.
Protocols and Service.

Why was Frame Relay Developed?
The need for high speed and high performance
Data Tx.
Cost-effective use of widespread digital facilities
Inexpensive processing power found in end user
devices.
Frame Relay Origins

Frame relay began as a stripped-down
version of the X.25 protocol, releasing
itself from the error-correcting burden
most commonly associated with X.25.
When frame relay detects an

error, it simply drops the
offending packet.
Frame relay uses the concept of
shared-access and relies on a
technique referred to as "besteffort.
Frame Relay Technology Basics

Frame Relay provides a packetswitching data communications
capability that is used across the
interface between user devices (e.g.,
routers, bridges, host machines) &
network equipment (for example,
switching nodes).
User devices are often

referred to as Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE),
Network equipment that interfaces
to DTE is often referred to as Data
Circuit-terminating Equipment
(DCE).
The network providing the

Frame Relay interface can be
either a carrier-provided public
network or a network of privately
owned equipment serving a single
enterprise.
As an interface to a network, Frame
Relay is the same type of protocol as
X.25.
Frame Relay Protocol Architecture

A very simple protocol stack for frame relay.
Only one and a half layers of the OSI Model are
used.
The protocol layers used are

the Physical Layer and a
subset of the Data Link Layer,
called LAPF core (LAPF = Link Access
Procedures / Processes to Frame Mode
Bearer Services) which is defined in
Q.922.
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How Does Frame Relay Work?

Frame Relay Is A Digital Packet Network Service
Provides All The Features & Benefits Of A Dedicated
Network Service Without The Expense Of Multiple
Dedicated Circuits.
This data is carried in the form of packets and
given an ID on a per packet basis.
It is then sent across the network in a very efficient way.
Information is sent over the WAN using a Data Link

Connection Identifier (DLCI), which specifies the
frame's destination
The network discards the frames if there is a problem
due to line errors or congestion
Error correction and lost frames

are retransmitted by the end
user hardware devices at
higher-level protocols
than the frame cloud
Good performances are achieved by
low error rates
Frame Relay Call Control

Establish a logical connection b/n two endpoints,
and assign a unique DLCI to the connection
Exchange information in data frames.
Each frame includes a DLCI field to identify the
connection
Release the logical connection
Frame Relay Congestion Control

Two congestion control strategies supported in
frame relay networking are:
Congestion Avoidance Procedures
Used At The Onset Of Congestion To Minimize The Effect
On The Network
Congestion Recovery Procedures

Used To Prevent Network Collapse In The Face Of Severe
Congestion
Frame Relay Devices

Devices attached to a Frame Relay WAN
fall into two general categories:
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE)
DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking

devices.
Purpose of DCE equipment:
To provide clocking
Switching services in a network, WAN.
In most cases, these are packet switches.
Relationship Between The Two Categories Of Devices.
Frame Relay Virtual Circuits

Frame Relay provides connection-oriented
data link layer communication.
This means that a defined communication
exists between each pair of devices and that
these connections are associated with a
connection identifier.
FR Switched Virtual Circuits

Switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are
temporary connections used in situations
requiring only sporadic data transfer between
DTE devices across the Frame Relay network.
A communication session across an SVC consists
of the following four operational states:
Frame Relay Network

A FR network consists of endpoints e.g.,
PCs,
Servers,
Host Computers),
FR Access equipment (e.g., Bridges, Routers, Hosts,
frame relay access devices)
Network devices (e.g., Switches, Network Routers,
T1/E1 Multiplexers & Demultiplexers, Etc).
Frame Relay Network
The FR access equipment is responsible

for:
Delivering Frames To The Network In The Prescribed
Format.
Switching Or Routing Frames Thr The Network To
The Proper Destination User Devices.
A FR network will often be depicted as a

network cloud, Since:
FR Network Is Not A Single Physical
Connection B/n One Endpoint & The Other.
Instead, A Logical Path Is Defined Within The
Network.
This Logical Path Is Called A Virtual Circuit.
Frame Relay Applications

FR was developed in the 1990s to
provide solutions for several trends in the
network, including;
The Change From Mostly Text To Graphic
Interaction Increase In "Bursty" Traffic
Advantages of Frame Relay

The main advantage of FR over point-to-point
leased lines is cost.
FR can provide performance similar to that of a
leased line, but with significantly less cost over
long distances.
FR offers an attractive alternative to both
dedicated lines and X.25 networks for connecting
LANs to bridges and routers.
Disadvantages of FR
The two main disadvantages of
FR are:
- Slow downs due to network congestion
- Difficulty ensuring Quality of Service
(QoS).
Because all of a provider's FR customers use a

common network there can be times when data
transmission exceeds network capacity.
The difficulty ensuring QoS is due to the fact that Frame
Relay uses variable-length packets.
It is easier to guarantee QoS when using a fixed-length
packet.
4.2
FRAME RELAY PROTOCOLS AND SERVICE
Frame Relay Protocols

Frame Relay was originally conceived as a
protocol for use over ISDN interfaces.
Initial proposals to this effect were submitted to
ITU-T in 1984 in Europe.
Work on Frame Relay was also undertaken in
the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in United States.
Frame Relay Protocols Examples:

The ITU-T Data Link Layer, LAPD (Q.921)
provides a reliable data link control service

ANSI T1.618 describes the protocol supporting
the data transfer phase of the Frame Relay
bearer service, as defined in ANSI T1.606.
T1.618 is based on a subset of ANSI T1.602
(LAPD) called the "Core Aspects" and is used by
both switched and permanent virtual calls.
Frame-relay network architecture is

based on the integrated systems
digital network (ISDN) packet-mode
bearer services. Table 4.1 shows the
standards,
Frame Relay Services

Frame Relay services include:
Permanent Virtual Circuit services:
Switched Virtual Call services:
Security:
Frame Relay Technology sets up routes across
the network, referred to as Permanent Virtual
Circuits (PVCs).
These PVCs are assigned exclusively to traffic
and are not shared by other users, making
them intrinsically protected.
Monitoring
We can monitor our network
performance with special concurrent
performance tools and usage statistics.
Web-based statistics let us monitor traffic
patterns so we can avoid jamming and
blockages.
Flexibility
Frame Relay Network is among the most
reliable on the market with several routes
made ready for data.
The network automatically reroutes around
any disruption ensuring high levels of
availability.
4.3 FRAME-MODE PROTOCOL

ARCHITECTURE
Frame Relay is designed to provide lower delay
and higher throughput than traditional packet
switched networks.
It originated as part of ISDN standardization.
Frame Relay service can be provided by both
ISDN and non-ISDN networks.
The protocol stack of frame relay is simple, only

one and a half layer.
The protocol layers used are the Physical Layer and
a subset of the Data Link Layer, called LAPF core
(LAPF = Link Access Procedures to Frame Mode
Bearer Services) which is defined in Q.922.
LAPF is based on and is an extension of LAPD,
which is used in ISDN.
The Data Link Layer on the other

hand provides some of the same
functions as defined in OSI model
such as framing, addressing and bit error
detection.
The difference is that there is no
sequencing or no acknowledgements.
4.4
FRAME-MODE CALL CONTROL
The steps for frame relay call control are as

follows:
Establish a logical connection between two
endpoints, and assign a unique DLCI to the
connection
Exchange information in data frames.
Each frame includes a DLCI field to
identify the connection.
Release the logical connection when call is over.
END OF
MODEL 7
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MODULE
ASYNCHRONOUS
TRANSFER MODE
(ATM)
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
Overview.
Virtual Channels and Virtual Path.
ATM Protocols,
Transmission of ATM Cells,
Quality of Service (QoS)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL).
AAL Services.
8.8 Traffic and Congestion Control.

8.9 Latency/Speed Effect,
8.10 Cell Delay Variation.
8.11ATM Network Resource
Management
8.12Connection Admission
Control, Usage Parameter Control,
Priority Control,
8.13 ATM Traffic shaping
GENERAL OVERVIEW
What is ATM?
ATM is a Cell relay, Packet Switching
network and Data Link layer Protocol
which encodes data traffic into small fixedsized cells (53 bytes; 48 bytes of data and 5
bytes of header information
ATM provides data link layer services that
run over Layer 1 links.
ATM differs from earlier

technologies based on packetswitched networks (such as the
Internet Protocol or Ethernet), in
which variable sized packets are
used (known as frames when
referencing to Layer 2).
ATM is a connection-oriented
technology, in which a logical
connection is established between
the two endpoints before the actual
data exchange begins.
Circuit switching has the benefits

of supporting high speed data as
well as low and constant Tx
delays.
Packet switching, on the other hand, is
efficient for bursty traffic since the
bandwidth is used only when there is
something to transmit.
ATM is a cell-relay technology with

statistical multiplexing
NOTE: cell = packet, relay = switch,
so it is a packet switching.
It is a protocol that transmits data as fixed
sized packets.
This is the culmination of all the
developments in switching and Tx of data in
recent years.
ATM Design
ATM is a technology designed for high-speed
transfer of voice, video, and data through public
and private networks using cell relay technology.
ATM is an ITU-T Standard first developed in the
mid 1980s. .
ATM Objective:
- To design a single networking strategy
that could transport real-time video and
audio as well as image files, text and email.
Designers:
- Two groups, the ITUT and the ATM Forum
were the creators of the ATM standards.
ATM was designed to make B-ISDN a reality.
Design Intent:
ATM has the benefits of both circuit switching
and packet switching.
Faster than X.25, more streamlined than FR
Supports data rates several orders of magnitude greater
than FR
Data on logical connection is organized into fixed-size
packets, called cells.
No link-by-link error control or flow control.
ATM Motivation
The emergence of fiber technology offered
a Tx capacity that could easily handle high
bit rates.
This led to the development of networks
that can integrate all types of information
services.
Thus, ATM was designed in order to

provide a network that is capable of
handling data, voice, video, and image
applications Independently Of Their
Bandwidth Requirements.
ATM was the standard developed to
provide B-ISDN services.
Why ATM?
ATM was developed:
- To support any type of traffic:
- Bursty data (to multimegabit rates: files,
images, multimedia)
- Intermittent data (interactive systems, low
rate, delay intolerant)
- Voice (sustained data rate, 64 kbps)
- Video (sustained data rate, multimegabit
rates)
ETC.
Plse Ref to H/O
ATM Basics
To understand how ATM works,
it is required to have a
knowledge of how ATM packages and
transfers information, and the
mechanisms on which ATM networking
is based.
ATM Cell Basic Format

The basic unit of information used by ATM is
a fixed-size cell consisting of 53 octets / bytes.
The First 5 Bytes Contain Header Information, Such As The;
Connection Identifier
The Remaining 48 Bytes Contain The Data, Or Payload.
Because the ATM switch does not have to

detect the size of a unit of data,
switching can be performed efficiently.
The small size of the cell also makes it well suited
for the transfer of real-time data, such as voice
and video.
Such traffic is intolerant of delays resulting from
having to wait for large data packets to be loaded
and forwarded.
ATM Cell Header Format

An ATM cell header can be one of
two formats: UNI or NNI.
The UNI header is used for communication
b/n ATM endpoints & ATM switches in
private ATM networks.
The NNI header is used for communication
between ATM switches.
Basic ATM Cell Format:

- The ATM UNI Cell Header Format
The ATM NNI Cell Header

Format.
Summary of ATM Cell Fields

(Ref. To HOs For Details)
Generic Flow Control (GFC) Is Used For
Control Of Cell Flow Only At The Local
User-Network Interface, To Alleviate Short-term
Overload Conditions In The Network.
Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) Field Constitutes A
Routing Field For The Network.
Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI) Field Is Used For

Routing To & From The End User.
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Payload Type (PT) Field Indicates The Type Of

Information In The Information Field.
Cell Loss Priority (CLP) Bit Is Used To Provide
Guidance To The Network In The Event Of Congestion.
Header Error Control (HEC) Field Is Used To Detect
Correct Errors In The Header
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The Concepts of ATM

Why ATM cells?
The motivation for the use of small data
cells was the reduction of jitter (delay
variance, in this case) in the multiplexing of
data streams.
This Reduction (also end-to-end round-trip
delays) is particularly important when
carrying voice traffic.
ATM Cell Base

ATM cells are the smallest standardized
information units within the ATM network.
All user and signalling information must be
represented within this cell format.
To guarantee fast processing in the network, the header
has very limited functionality.
Its main function is to identify cells belonging to the
same virtual channel and to perform the appropriate
routing.
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ATM Switching Operations

The cell is received across a link on a
known VPI or VCI value.
The switch looks up the connection value in
a local translation table to determine the
outgoing port (or ports) of the connection
and the new VPI/VCI value of the
connection on that link.
ATM Devices
An ATM network is made up of one or
more ATM switches and ATM endpoints.
An ATM endpoint (or end system) contains an ATM
Network Interface Adapter (ANIA), Workstations,
routers, Data Service Units (DSUs), LAN switches, &
video (CODECs).
The ATM switches handle Tx of cells through the ATM
network.
ATM Network Devices
Basic ATM Network
A Private ATM Network & A Public ATM

Network Carrying Voice, Video, & Data
Traffic.
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ATM Switches
An ATM cell swit at marks the beginning of a cycle.
Any cell fully arrived when the clock ticks is eligible for
switching during that cycle.
A cell not fully arrived has to wait until the next cycle.
Cells arrive at ATM speed, normally about 150 Mbps.
This works out around 360,000 cells/sec, the cycle time has
to be about 2.7 sec.
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A commercial switch might have from

16 to 1024 input lines.
At 622 Mbps the cycle time has to be about
700 nsec.
The fact that the cells are fixed length & short
makes it possible to build such switches.
With longer variable-length packets, high speed
switching would be more complex, that is why ATM
uses short fixed-length cells.
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Basic ATM Switches
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ATM Network Functions Include

Accepting the incoming cell from an ATM
end station or another ATM switch.
Reading & updating the cell-header information
& switching the cell towards its destination as
fast as possible.
ATM Network Interfaces

The Three Main Types of ATM Interfaces:
-
UNI (User-Network Interface) and

NNI (Network-Network Interface).
B-ICI (Broadband Inter-exchange Carrier
Interface)
The UNI connects ATM end-systems to

an ATM switch.
The NNI connects two ATM switches.
B-ICI connects b/n ATM switches of different
suppliers.
UNI and NNI are also subdivided into Public
& Private UNIs & NNIs.
Are there any Disadvantages of ATM?

Overhead of cell header (5 bytes per cell).
Complex mechanisms for achieving QoS (Quality
of Service).
Flexible at The Expense Of Efficiency
Cost, although it decreases with time
New customer premises hardware and software
are required.
Other Basic ATM Points To

Remember
Small Cells enough to fit into spaces too
small for larger packets or frames, thus
enabling both speed and efficiency.
Traffic routes are pre-planned.
Switching is done without the need for timeconsuming software.
Payload error checking and correction is
performed only at the destination node, not at
every hop along the way.
B-ISDN and ATM Technologies

B-ISDN is based on ATM technology, which
has emerged as a popular method of
simultaneously transmitting Audio, Video,
and Data.
ATM has Tx rates between 1.544 Mbps and
Several Gbps.
What Are The Drivers Behind ATM?

The drives behind the ATM include:
a) Technology:.........
b) Applications: ......
c) Business:..............
d)
Benefits:................
Technology:
Protocol Enhancements:
-
Decentralized, peer-to-peer networking;
High-performance Digital Tx:

- Simple Protocols for more reliable Tx
medium;
Worldwide Industry Support:
- Most Sectors of Industry Support ATM;
ETC
Applications:
Consumer service applications;
Entertainment imaging;
Work at home: telecommuting;
Home shopping;
Video-on-Demand;
Enabling New Applications.
Business:
Evolution from shared medium to highperformance switching;
Virtual networking; Seamless interworking
(Mixed voice, video, data, wireless traffic);
More bandwidth for less bucks;
Future proofing investment;
Benefits:
Integration of multiple traffic types;
Efficient Bw use by statistical multiplexing;
Guaranteed Bw and resource allocation;
Dynamic bandwidth Mgt;
High service availability;
Multiple QoS class support;
ETC.
ATM VIRTUAL CHANNELS

VIRTUAL PATHS
AND
ATM networks are fundamentally

connection oriented.
This means that a virtual connection needs
to be established across the ATM network
prior to any data transfer.
ATM Virtual Connections Are Of

Two General Types:
- Virtual Path Connections (VPCs), identified
by a Virtual Path Identifier (VPI).
- Virtual Channel Connections (VCCs),
identified by the combination of a VPI & a
Virtual Channel Identifier VCI.
A Virtual Path Is Created By Multiples Of Virtual

Channels Heading / Routed Towards The Same
Destination.
Virtual Path Connections (VPCs)
VCs Concatenate to Create VPs
ATM PROTOCOLS
What Are ATM Protocols (ATMPs)?
ATMPs are Networking Standards for
transferring data in cells of fixed sizes.
Standards for ATM UNI signalling provide
a mechanism for the selection of the ATM
AAL and QoS to be used for an ATM
connection.
ATM Protocol Architecture
ATMP RM Planes
TRANSMISSION OF ATM CELLS

Asynchronous Transmission
Unlike TDM in traditional telecommunication
systems, ATM does not assign any time slots to a
given user and it is not tied to a master clock.
Instead, ATM dynamically allocates ATM cells
when user equipment wishes to transmit
information.
Cells Representing Traffic Generated By

Different Users Are Multiplexed Over
The Physical Tx Medium.
ATM does not run directly over the

physical medium,
The Physical Layer Technology Is Used To
Provide ATM With A Set Of Necessary Functions.
Thus, ATM Cells Are Often Xted In The

Asynchronous Mode By Using The
Synchronous Physical Layer.
Transmission in ATM Networks

ATM has no requirements that cells rigidly
alternate among the various sources.
Cells arrive randomly from different sources.
Gaps between the data are filled by special idle cells.
Cells are allowed to be sent individually, or:
They can be encased in a carrier such as T1/E2,
T3/E3, T4/E4, SONET, SDH or FDDI.
ATM Transmission Path

The Tx medium for ATM is normally fiber optics,
but runs under 100m,
Coax or cable category 5 twisted pair are also acceptable.
Each link goes b/n a computer & an ATM switch, or between
two ATM switches.
15/05/2008 18:10:18
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The Function of An ATM Switch

An ATM switch is responsible for cell
transit through an ATM network.
It accepts the incoming cell from an ATM
endpoint or another ATM switch.
It then reads & updates the cell header
information & quickly switches the cell to an
output interface toward its destination.
The Composition of An ATM Network

An ATM network is made up of ATM Switches &
ATM End-points.
An ATM end-points (or end systems) contain ANIAs
ATM NETWORK INTERFACES

Consists of a set of ATM switches interconnected
by point-to-point ATM links or interfaces.
A private ATM network & a public ATM network

Carrying Voice, Video, & Data Traffic.
ATM Switches
An ATM cell switch has some number of input lines
and output lines (both numbers are usually the
same).
ATM switches are generally synchronous in the
sense that during a cycle, one cell is taken from each
input line, passed into the internal switching fabric,
and eventually transmitted on the appropriate output
line.
Cells actually arrive on the input lines

asynchronously, hence the name ATM.
Thus, there is a master clock that marks the
beginning of a cycle.
Any cell fully arrived when the clock ticks is
eligible for switching during that cycle.
ATM Quality of Service (QoS)

What is QoS?
In the field of packet-switched
telecommunication networks, computer
networking & in traffic engineering, the term
Quality of Service refers to resource
reservation control mechanisms rather than the
achieved service quality.
QoS is the ability of a network to

provide different priority to
different applications, users, or data
flows,
OR
Ability of a network to guarantee a
certain level of network performance to
data flow.
Why Quality of Service

Some ATM Services may have multiple
constraints while some have none.
Thus, in order for ATM Network to be able to support
all the different services, while using available network
resources efficiently & to ensure specified and
guaranteed levels of QoS, ATM needs to bound and
control the different traffic parameters associated with
each service.
ATM QoS Parameters

A set of QoS parameters are negotiated
when a connection is set up in an ATM network.
These parameters are used to measure the QoS of a
connection and quantify end-to-end network
performance at the ATM layer.
The network should guarantee the negotiated QoS
by meeting certain values of these parameters.
The QoS Parameters include:

Cell Transfer Delay (CTD).
This is the delay experienced by a cell between the
time it takes for the first bit of the cell to be
transmitted by the source and the last bit of the cell
to be received by the destination.
Maximum Cell Transfer Delay (Max CTD) and
Mean Cell Transfer Delay (Mean CTD) are used.
Peak-to-Peak Cell Delay Variation (CDV)

CDV IS the difference between the
Maximum and Minimum CTD experienced
during the connection.
Peak-to-Peak CDV and Instantaneous CDV
values are used.
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)

AAL is a sub-layer of the ATM Reference
Model.
ATM architecture uses a logical model to
describe the functionality that it supports.
ATM functionality corresponds to the physical
layer and part of the data link layer of the OSI
reference model
The OSI-ATM Reference Model
The ATM Layer

The ATM Layer is responsible for:
Cell Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Virtual Path Identification (VPI), and
Virtual Channel Identification (VCI)
Cell Header Generation/Extraction
Generic Flow Control
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)

Combined with the ATM layer, the
AAL is roughly analogous to the data
link layer of the OSI model.
The AAL is responsible for isolating higherlayer protocols from the details of the ATM
processes.
The adaptation layer prepares

user data for conversion into
cells and segments the data
into
48-byte cell
payloads.
Finally, the higher layers residing
above the AAL accept user data,
arrange it into packets.
The AAL Consists of Two Sublayers:

-
The Segmentation And Reassemble

sublayer, SAR
The Convergence sublayer (Cs).
The SAR sublayer packs the information

received from Cs into cells for transmission and
handles unpacking at the other end.
The Cs provides specific application support for
applications using AAL.
Classification of AAL Types

The ITU-T has defined four types of
service classifications.
These are:
AAL Type 1
This classification requires constant bit rate,
maintenance of timing relation, and is a
connection oriented classification.
AAL Type 2
This includes variable bit rate video, i.e., video
conference.
Here the application is connection oriented,
timing is important, however the bit rate will
vary over time.
AAL Type
Initially this was two classifications, however, ITUT combined them due to similarity in processing.
This type represents data transfer applications, and
with varying bit rates, no timing requirements with
type three being connection oriented, and type four
being connectionless orientated.
AAL Type 5
This is a new classification which
was introduced to provide streamline
transport facilities.
6.6
AAL Services.
ATM Service Categories

One of the main benefits of ATM is to
provide distinct classes of service for:
- Varying Bandwidth,
- Loss, and
- Latency requirements of different
applications.
Table 6-1 AAL Service Categories and Characteristics

QoS CHARACTERISTICS
TRAFFIC
PARAMETERS
CELL LOSS CELL DELAY
PCR
Low
Low
VBR-RTVariable Bit PCR, SCR, MBS

Rate Real-Time
Low
Low
VBR-NRTVariable
Bit Rate Non-Real
Time
PCR, SCR, MBS
Low
Unspecified
ABRAvailable Bit
Rate
PCR, MCR
Unspecified Unspecified
SERVICE CATEGORY
CBRConstant Bit
Rate
UBRUnspecified Bit (no guarantees)

Rate
Unspecified Unspecified
PCR
Program Clock Reference
SCR
Sustainable Cell Rate
MBS
Maximum Burst Size
MCR
Minimum Cell Rate
AAL Service Classification
LATENCY / SPEED EFFECT

The key performance issues that relate to the
requirements for ATM Traffic and Congestion
Control are:
- Latency / Speed Effects and
- Cell Delay Variation.
CELL DELAY VARIATION

What is Cell Delay variation?
Cells progressing along a virtual connection in an
ATM network experience random delays, due to
queuing in multiplexing stages.
These random delays generally induce an alteration
in the initial time structure of any cell stream
passing through the network.
This phenomenon is known as cell delay variation
(CDV).
As mention in the QoS parameters section above,

Cell Delay Variation (CDV) is the difference
between the maximum and minimum CTD
experienced during the connection.
Peak-to-peak CDV and Instantaneous CDV are used
to measure quality of service parameters.
ATM NETWORK RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
What are ATM Network Resources?
ATM Network Resource Management is the

process of keeping track of the way and
manner link resources are allocated to
connections in broadband networks ATM
networks.
The two primary resources that are tracked by

network resource management are Capacity
(Bandwidth) and Connection Identifiers (CIs).
The process keeps track of the capacity and
controls the allocation of capacity to
connections when requested as part of the
connection setup procedures
It deals with protocols and networks capable of

performing a Reservation of the Available Resources
in order to Guarantee a Predefined QoS.
Examples of these technologies are ATM and MultiProtocol Label Switching (MPLS), which are
usually used in core networks.
ATM Network Resources include the combination

of:
- Fixed cell sizes,
- The concept of VPs and VCs and
- Five different categories of ATM adaptation layer
protocols make ATM one of the most flexible high
speed networking technologies implemented today .
In addition to it's flexibility for supporting

voice, video and data and ability to scale to
large networks, ATM is the first and so far the
only widely implemented technology that can
offer the much needed QoS.
Some of the ATM resources responsible for
these achievements are discussed below.
ANRM is actually a congestion control

technique concerned with the Management of
ATM:
- Cell Loss Ratio (CLR)
- Cell Transfer Delay (CTD)

- Cell Delay Variation (CDV)
END OF
MODEL 8
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DAY 7
MODEL 9
TRAFFIC FLOW &
CONGESTION CONTROL
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OVERVIEW
Congestion Control Strategies,
Admission Control Mechanisms,
Congestion-control Mechanisms,
Traffic Rate Management,
Traffic Management/Policing,
Explicit Congestion Avoidance,
Implicit Congestion Control, Congestion Notification),
ATM Connection Admission Control (CAC),
Usage Parameter Control,
ATM Cell Priority Control,
ATM Traffic Shaping And Traffic Policing.
Congestion Mgt Summary
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Traffic Flow Explained

Traffic Flow:
The Process, Phenomenon By Which Information Is Txted,
Disseminated From A Point-to-point Or Multipoints
Utilizing:
Network Nodes,
Links,
Channels,
Routes & Routers,
Switches, Hubs, Servers,
Bridges, Gateways,
Etc, in a duplex way.
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Traffic Flow in Circuit Switching:

Information Sent Continuously Using
The Network Elements Listed Above.
Traffic Flow In Packet Switching:
Sequence Of Packets From A Source Computer
To A Destination, (A.K.A. Packet Flow Or
Network Flow) Possibly:
Another Host,
A Multicast Group, Or
A Broadcast Domain.
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Network Congestion
The Inability Of A Network To Meet Traffic
Demanded By Users At A Given Time:
Practically During:
Busy Hours
Rush Hours or
Pick Hours
Due To Insufficient Network Resources.

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Causes of Network Congestion:

The Input Traffic Demands Exceed The
Capacity Of The Network
When Output Links Are Slower Than Inputs
Multiple Traffic Sources Competing For Same
Output Link At The Same Time,
Etc.
Effects of Congestion
Congestion Is Undesirable Can Cause:
Increased Delay, Due To:
Queuing Within The Network,
Packet Loss, Due To:
Buffer Overflow,
Reduced Throughput, Due To:

Packet Loss &
Retransmission
During Rush Hour Traffic Flow.
What is Congestion Control?

Congestion Control is defined as the set of
actions performed by the network to
prevent or reduce congestion.
It is the most important part of the traffic
management issue.
Congestion Control Deals With:

Dome Controlling Traffic Entry Into Networks
To Avoid Congestive Collapse By:
Attempting To Avoid Oversubscription Of
Processing Or Link Capabilities Of The

Intermediate Nodes & Networks
Taking Resource Reduction Steps, Such As:
Reducing The Rate Of Sending Packets.
Why Congestion Control

To Cope With The Various Service Classes
To Cope With Potential Errors Within The Network
At Any Time.
The Network Should Have The Following Traffic

Control Capabilities:
Be Responsive To The Different Utility Functions Of
The Users
Be Able To Mge The Resources Such That:
There Is No Loss Of Utility As The Load (Traffic
Volume) Increases.
CONGESTION AVOIDANCE
Congestion Avoidance Is The Capability Of A
Network To:
Anticipate Congestion
Prevent / Avoid It So That:
Congestion Never Occurs.
Explicit Congestion Avoidance

Explicit Congestion Notification Is The Proposed:
Congestion Avoidance Policy.
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ECN Tries To Keep The Network Operating

At Its Desired Equilibrium Point So That:
A Certain QoS For The Network Can
Be Met & Maintained.
Special Congestion Control Bits are Inserted Into
The Address Fields:
FECN &
BECN.
To Avoid Traffic Accumulation / Acquisition Inside

The Network.
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FECN Bit Set To 1 Indicates That:

Congestion Was Experienced In The Direction
Of Tx,
This Informs The Destination That Congestion Has
Occurred.
BECN Bit Set To 1 Indicates That:
Congestion Was Experienced In The Opposite

Direction of Tx
To Inform The Sender That Congestion Has
Occurred.
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ECN Limitation: Packet Drops.

A More Efficient Technique Would Be For A Router
To Set A CN Bit In A Packet,:
Then Send The Packet To The Receiver.
The Rxer Could Then Inform The Sender To Slow Down Tx
Via A Message In The Ack.
All The While, The Rxer Gets Its Packet &
Avoids Using Packet Drops To Signal Congestion.
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ECN Works Well When Congestion Is Moderate.

If Congestion Is Excessive, Cell-drop Techniques
Are Used.
ECN-enabled Routers Set A Cell Delay (CD - Congestion
Experienced) Bit In The Headers Of Cells From ECN-capable
Hosts:
When The Length Of A Queue Exceeds A Certain
Threshold Value.
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501
Forwarded To The Rxver,

Sends An ACK To The Sender That Contains
The Congestion Indicator - An ECN-echo.
Sender Receiving Explicit Signal,
Then Halves The Rate At Which It Sends Packets.
15/05/2008 18:10:18
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Implicit Congestion Control (ICC)

Reliance On Network Traffic Xtics To Indicate
Network Congestion Is Refd To As:
Implicit Congestion Notification (ICN)
TCP Operating In The End Devices Have Implicit Form Of
Congestion Detection, Inferring That:
Congestion Is Occurring By:

An Increase In Round Trip Delay Or By
Detection Of The Loss Of A Cell.
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Such Protocols Limit The Rate At Which They

Send Traffic Onto The Network By Means Of:
A "Window,"
Which Allows Only A Limited Number Of Cells /
Packets To Be Sent Before An Ack Is Rxed.
The Protocol Can Reduce Its Window Size When

Congestion Is Occurring,
Thus, Reducing The Load On The Network.
The Window Size Increases steadily, As
Congestion Level Shrinks
15/05/2008 18:10:18
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This is Also Implemented In The End-user

Devices To:
Respond To Congestion Notification FECN & BECN.
The ANSI Standards State That ICN & ECN Are

Current Technology:
Used Together For Best Results.
15/05/2008 18:10:18
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Collision Avoidance Technique

Each Cell Handler Monitors Its Congestion Level & Sets
BECN & FECN As Appropriate.
BECN & FECN Notify Users That Congestion Avoidance
Procedures Should Be Initiated Where Applicable:
For Traffic In The Appropriate Direction.
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The Notification Indicates That Cells / Packet

Txtted By The User May Encounter
Congested Resources.
User Response Reduces Txted Cell Rate
Until The Notification Signal Ceases.
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ATM Connection Admission Control

In ATM Networks, CAC Is The Set Of Actions Taken
By The Network During Call Set-up (Or Re-negotiation)
Phase:
To Establish If A VP Or VC Can Be Accepted By The
Network.
This Is First Line Of Defense Against Network Congestion.
A Connection Can Only Be Established If Sufficient Network
Resources Are Available:
To Establish The Connection From-End-to-end With The

Required QoS.
15/05/2008 18:10:18
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Agreed QoS For Existing Channels Must Not Be

Affected By New Connections.
New Connections Are Accepted Only If Traffic Demands
Can Be Meet.
By Selecting Agreed QoS, Users Specify Traffic Xtics For
New Connection:
VCC Or
VPC.
Connection-Oriented Networks & CAC

Connection-oriented Networks In ATM
Systems Perform CAC Based On Traffic Contracts.
Appns Wishing To Use Connection-oriented
Networks To Transport Traffic Must;
Request A Connection Thr Signalling,
Inform The Network About The Xtics Of The Traffic
& The QoS Required By The Appn.
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Usage Parameter Control (UPC)
UPC Function Is Performed At The UNI,

And At The Network Node Interface (NNI).
The Main Purpose Of UPC/NPC Is To:
Protect Network Resources From Malicious & Unintentional
Traffic Misbehaviour
That Might Affect The QoS Of Other Already Established
Connections.
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UPC Can Simply Discard Cells That

Violate The Negotiated Traffic Parameters.
Here, A 'Guilty' Connection May Be Released.
A Less Rigorous Measure Would Be:

To'Tag ' The Cells & Let Them Thr:
If They Do Not Cause Harm To The Network.
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ATM Cell Priority Control

ATM Cells Have An Explicit CLP Bits In
The Header
At Least Two Different ATM Cell Priority Classes Can
Be Distinguished.
A Single ATM Connection Can Have Both Priority
Classes When The Information To Be Txted Is
Classified Into:
More Important Parts
Less Important Parts.
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Each ATM Cell Header Has A CLP Bit Used To Identify

Cells As Either:
Conforming To The Contract Or
Nonconforming.
If Cells Are Nonconforming Then The:
ATM Switch Sets The CLP Bit To One.
This Cell Can Now Be Transferred Thr The Network Only If
There Is Sufficient Network Capacity.
With Less Bandwidth Available:
The Nonconforming Cell Is Discarded & Ma y Need To Be
Retransmitted.
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ATM TRAFFIC SHAPING &

TRAFFIC POLICING
Traffic Shaping
Traffic Shaping (Cell Shaping") Is The Control Of

Network Traffic In Order To:
Optimize Or Guarantee Performance,
Lower Latency,
Increase Bandwidth Utilization By;
Delaying Cells That Meet Certain Criteria.
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Traffic Shaping Is Any Action On A Set Of Cells

(Stream Or A Flow) Which:
Imposes Additional Delay On Those Packets
Such That:
They Conform To Some Predetermined Constraint
(E.g., A Contract Or Traffic Profile).
Traffic Shaping Provides A Means To Control:
The Volume Of Traffic Being Sent Into A Network
In A Specified Period (Bandwidth Controlling), Or
The Maximum Rate At Which The Traffic Is Seen.
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Traffic Policing
The Process Of Monitoring Network Traffic For
Conformity With A Traffic Contract &;
`If Required, Dropping Traffic To Enforce Compliance With
That Contract.
To maintain Network Performance
The Need For Police Action Occurs In An ATM Network When:
Traffic Flow Exceeds The Negotiated Rate & The Buffer
Overflows.
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If A Circuit Is Exceeding Its Traffic Contract,

The Network Can Either Drop The Cells Or
Mark The CLP Bit To Identify A Cell As
Discardable Farther Down The Line.
Basic Policing Works On A Cell By Cell Basis
Discarding A Single Cell Will Invalidate A Whole Packet.

Thus:
Schemes Such As Partial Packet Discard (PPD) & Early
Packet Discard (EPD) That Discard A Whole Series Of Cells
Until The Next Packet Starts Are Implemented.
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Reducing The No. Of Redundant Cells

In The Network,
Saving Bandwidth For Full Packets.
EPD & PPD Work With AAL5 Connections:

As They Use The Frame End Bit To Detect The End
Of Packets.
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CONGESTION MANAGEMENT SUMMARY

Congestion Mgt (CM) Features Allow Us To:
Control Congestion By:
Determining The Order In Which Packets Are
Transmitted Out From An Interface:
Based On Priorities Assigned To Those Packets.
CM Entails:
The Creation Of Queues,
Assignment Of Packets To Those Queues Based On;
The Packet's Classification,
Scheduling Of The Packets In Queues For Tx.
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CM Is Crucial In;
Meeting SLAs
Ensuring That Mission-critical Traffic Is
Prioritized & Delivered With Minimal Delay.
CM Involves :
The Use Of Queues In Routers
Holding Excess Packets During Congestion Until The
Interfaces Are Free To Tx Them.
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THE END OF MODEL 9
15/05/2008 18:10:18
522
SUBMISSION OF
ASSIGNMENT
MOCK EXAMINATION
FINAL EXAMINATION
15/05/2008 18:10:18
523

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COURSE TITLE: COMMUNICATION NETWORK S

COURSE CODE: MTE 501

OFFICE HOURS: FRIDAY / 14:00 16:00 GMT

Academic excellence in ICT Education

MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF COMMUNICATIONS

MODULE 6: ISDN NETWORK & EQUIPMENT / PACKET

WHAT ARE NETWORKS?

WHAT ARE ANALOGUE SYSTEMS?

TRANSMISSION MEDIA FOR

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

Academic excellence in ICT Education

ATM CONNECTION ADMISSION CONTROL (CAC),

USAGE PARAMETER CONTROL,

Academic excellence in ICT Education

Academic excellence in ICT Education

RECOMMENDED READING MATERIALS /

Academic excellence in ICT Education

1.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW

It Is The Field Of Study Concerned With:

In The Electronic World, Communication Is The Transfer Of

What Are Networks?

The Generic Term "Network" Refers To A Group Of Entities

As The Distance Between Users Increased Beyond The

A Connection Among Four Nodes (A & D) Formed From 3 Links

The Connection Between The Users

As The Number Of Connected Users Increased,

These Phases, With Associated Timings,

A Circuit Switched Connection Between Nodes A & D

Information Flows In Two Directions.

After A User At (A) Node Requests A Circuit,

What Are Communication Networks

WHAT ARE COMMUNICATION CHANNELS?

Fundamental Model of Communication

Messages Formed By The Source Are Transmitted

Modern Communication Networks Strive To

Communication Networks Process Basic Signals:

One Effective Means Of Increasing The Range Of

Academic excellence in ICT Education

Another Way To Enhance The Capacity Of A Tx

Academic excellence in ICT Education

STAND-ALONE NETWORKS V CONVERGED

Offerings Are Converging Because:

Academic excellence in ICT Education

At Least Three Types Of Convergence Are Occurring:

Academic excellence in ICT Education

THE END OF MOGULE 1

REVIEW OF ANALOGUE & DIGITAL

One Way Of Understanding How Telecommunications

WHAT ARE ANALOGUE SYSTEMS?

Analogue Signal Wave-form

Advantages of Analogue Systems

WHAT ARE DIGITAL SYSTEMS?

Zeros (0s) & Ones (1s).

Digital Signal Wave-form

Digital Signals Can Be Recreated (Regenerated) At

WHY DIGITAL SYSTEMS?

Due To Signal Regeneration.

DIGITAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Digital System Design Involves A Significant Amount Of

Disadvantages Of Digital Systems

Academic excellence in ICT Education

Academic excellence in ICT Education

Telephones Originally Were Connected