Chapter 6

Differential and Multistage Amplifiers

The most widely used circuit building block in analog integrated
circuits.
Use BJTs, MOSFETS and MESFETs (metal semiconductor FET
read 5.12 Gallium Arsenide-GaAs Device).

 Differential pair circuits are one of the most

widely used circuit building blocks. The input
stage of every op amp is a differential amplifier
Basic Characteristics
Two matched transistors with emitters
shorted together and connected to a current
source
Devices must always be in active mode
Amplifies the difference between the two
input voltages, but there is also a common
mode amplification in the non-ideal case
Lets first understand how this circuit works.

 Assume the inputs are shorted together to a common voltage,

vCM, called the common mode voltage
equal currents flow through Q1 and Q2
emitter voltages equal and at vCM-0.7 in order for the
devices to be in active mode
collector currents are equal and so collector voltages are
also equal for equal load resistors
difference between collector voltages = 0
What happens when we vary vCM?
As long as devices in active mode, equal currents flow
through Q1 and Q2
Note: current through Q1 and Q2 always add up to I,
current through the current source
So, collector voltages do not change and difference is still
zero.
Differential pair circuits thus reject common mode signals

Q2 base grounded and Q1 base at +1 V

All current flows through Q1
No current flows through Q2
Emitter voltage at 0.3V and Q2s EBJ not FB
vC1 = VCC-IRC
vC2 = VCC

Q2 base grounded and Q1 base at -1 V

All current flows through Q2
No current flows through Q1
Emitter voltage at -0.7V and Q1s EBJ not FB
vC2 = VCC-aIRC
vC1 = VCC

 Apply a small signal vi

Causes a small positive DI to flow in Q1
Requires small negative DI in Q2
since IE1+IE2 = I
Can be used as a linear amplifier for small
signals (DI is a function of vi)
Differential pair responds to differences in the
input voltage
Can entirely steer current from one side of
the diff pair to the other with a relatively
small voltage
Lets now take a quantitative look at the largesignal operation of the differential pair

Large-Signal Operation

First look at the emitter currents when the emitters are tied together

v B 1 VE
VT

IS
IS
i E1 e
iE 2 e

Some manipulations can lead to the following equations

iE1

iE1 iE 2

and there is the constraint:

i E1
e
iE 2

v B 2 VE
VT

iE 2

iE 1 i E 2

1
1 e

v B 2 v B1
VT

vB1 vB 2
VT

1
1 e

vB1 vB 2
VT

iE1 iE 2 I

Given the exponential relationship, small differences in vB1,2 can cause all of the current to flow through
E1
vB 2 vB1
E2
one side
vB1 vB 2
VT
V

1 e

1 e

 Notice vB1-vB2 ~= 4VT enough to switch all of current from one side to the other
For small-signal analysis, we are interested in the region we can approximate to be
linear
small-signal condition: vB1-vB2 < VT/2

Small-Signal Operation

Look at the small-signal operation: small

differential signal vd is applied

vB1 vB 2 vd

iC1

1 e
multiply top
and bottom
by

vd
2VT

Ie

iC1
e

vd
2VT

vd
VT

vd
2VT

vd
2VT

expand the exponential and keep the first

two terms

iC1

I 1 vd 2VT
I I vd

1 vd 2VT 1 vd 2VT 2 2VT 2

iC 2

I I vd

2 2VT 2

I vd
ic
2VT 2

ic g m vd 2

gm

I C I 2

VT
VT

Differential Voltage Gain

For small differential input signals, vd << 2VT, the collector currents are

vd
iC1 I C g m
2
vC1 VCC

vd
I C RC g m RC
2

iC 2

vd
IC gm
2

vC 2 VCC

vd
I C RC g m RC
2

We can now find the differential gain to be

vc1 vc 2
Ad
g m RC
vd

Differential Half Circuit

We can break apart the differential pair circuit into two half circuits which
then looks like two common emitter circuits driven by +vd/2 and vd/2

We can then analyze the small-signal operation with the half

circuit, but must remember
parameters r,gm, and ro are biased at I/2
input signal to the differential half circuit is vd/2
voltage gain of the differential amplifier (output taken
differentially) is equal to the voltage gain of the half circuit
vc1
gmv
vd/2

vc1
Ad
g m RC ro
vd 2

RC

Common-Mode Gain

When we drive the differential pair with a common-mode signal,

vCM, the incremental resistance of the bias current effects circuit
operation and results in some gain (assumed to be 0 when R
was infinite)

vC1 vCM

RC
RC
vCM
2 R re
2R

vC 2 vCM

RC
2R

If the output is taken differentially, the output is zero since both sides move
together. However, if taken of the single circuit, the common-mode gain is finite

Acm

RC
2R

If we look at the differential gain of the circuit, we get

Ad g m RC

Then, the common rejection ratio (CMRR) will be

CMRR

Ad
1
gm R
Acm 2

which is often expressed in dB

CMRR 20 log10

Ad
Acm

CM and Differential Gain Equation

Input signals to a differential pair usually consists of two

components: common mode (vCM) and differential(vd)

vCM

v1 v2

vd v1 v2

Thus, the differential output signal will be in general

v1 v2
vo Ad v1 v2 Acm
2

The BJT Differential Pair

Connection to RC not
essential to the operation

Essential that Q1
and Q2 never enter
saturation

Use CD

Implemented by a
transistor circuit

Different Modes of Operation

Common voltage
I/2
vE = vCM-VBE
vC1 = VCC ( ) I RC
vC2 = VCC ( ) I RC
vC1 vC2 = ?
Vary vCM (what happens?)
Rejects common-mode

Differential pair with a common-mode input

Different Modes of Operation

vB1 = +1
Q1
Q2
vE = 0.3
Keeps Q2 off
vC1 = VCC - I RC
vC2 = VCC

Differential pair with a large differential input

Different Modes of Operation

Differential pair with a large differential input o opposite polarity

To that of (b)

Different Modes of Operation

Differential pair with a small differential input

Exercise 6.1
5 0.7
1

4.3

vC2 5 4.3 1

vC1 5

vE 0.7

vC2 0.7

Large-Signal Operation of the BJT Differential Pair

Equations

Which can be manipulated to yield

iE1

( vB1 vE)

iE1

iE2

IS

IS

iE1 iE2

VT

( vB2 vE)

iE1

VT

iE2

( vB2 vB1)
VT

1 e

( vB1 vB2)

iE1 iE2

VT

iE2

iE1 iE2

( vB1 vB2)

1 e

VT
1

iE1

The collector
currents
can be obtained by
multiplying the
emitter currents by
Alfa, which is ver
close to unity

( vB2 vB1)
VT

1 e

iE2

( vB1 vB2)

1 e

VT

Large-Signal Operation of the BJT Differential Pair

Relatively small
difference voltage vB1
vB2 will cause the
current I to flow almost
entirely in one of the two
transistors.
4.VT (~100mV) is
sufficient to switch the
current to one side of the
pair.

Small-Signal Operation
The Collector Currents When vd is applied
vd

iC1

vB1 vB2
I

iC2

vBQ1

I vd

2
2 VT 2

VBE

vd

vd

I vd

2
2 VT 2

vd

VT

I e

iC1

ic

VBE

e
I

vd
2

Interpretation: IC1 increases by ic and iC2 decreases by ic

gm

2 VT
vd

vd

iC1

vBQ2

2 VT

I
1 e

vd

VT

1 e

iC2

Multiplying by

vd

2 VT

2 VT

Assuming vd<<2VT

IC

VT

VT

iC1

I 1

vd
2 VT

vd

2 VT

vd
2 VT

An Alternative Viewpoint
Assume I to be ideal its incremental resistance will be infinite and vd appears across a total
resistance 2.re.
re

VT

VT

IE

vd

ie

2 re

ic

ie

vd
2 re

gm

vd
2

A simple technique for

determining the signal currents
in a differential amplifier
excited by a differential voltage
signal vd; dc quantities are not
shown.

If emitter resistors are included

ie

vd
2 re 2 RE

A differential amplifier with emitter resistances. Only signal quantities are shown (on color).

Input Differential Resistance

vd

ib

Rid

ie

2 re

vd
ib

1 2re

2 r

This is the resistance-reflection rule; the resistance seen between the two bases is
equal to the total resistance in the emitter circuit multiplied by the beta+1

Input Differential Resistance

Rid

1 ( 2 re 2 RE)

Differential Voltage Gain

iC1

IC gm

vd
2

vC1

( VCC IC RC) gm RC

vC2

( VCC IC RC) gm RC

Ad

Ad

vc1 vc2
vd

IC gm

iC2

vd
2
vd
2

gm RC

( 2RC)
( 2 re 2 RE)

RC
re RE

The voltage gain is equal to the

ratio of the total resistance in the
collector circuit (2RC) to the total
resistance in the emitter circuit
(2re+2RE)

vd
2

IC

I
2

Equivalence of the Differential Amp. To a Common-Emitter Amp.

Differential amplifier fed in a
complementary manner (pushpull or balanced)
Base of Q1 raised
Based of Q2 lowered

Equivalence of the differential amplifier (a) to the two common-emitter amplifiers in (b). This
equivalence applies only for differential input signals. Either of the two common-emitter
amplifiers in (b) can be used to evaluate the differential gain, input differential resistance,
frequency response, and so on, of the differential amplifier.

Equivalent Circuit Model of a Differential Half-Circuit

RC ro

Ad gm

RC ro

Common-Mode Gain

Assuming symmetry

Common-mode
half-circuits

vc1

vCM

vc2

vCM

Acm

vo

RC RC

2 R RC
Ad ( v1 v2) Acm

vCM

v1 v2

v1 v2

2 R re

vCM

RC
2 R

RC
2 R

If output is taken single-endedly

Acm and the differential gain Ad
We can define CMRR

Acm

Assuming non-symmetry

RC

CMRR

RC
2 R
Ad
Acm

Ad

1
2

gm RC

CMRR gm R

Input Common-Mode Resistance

Ricm

r
ro

vCM

vCM

2 . Ricm

Ricm =

Equivalent common-mode half-circuit

Since the input common-mode resistance
is usually very large, its value will be
affected by the transistor resistances
R0 and r

Example 6.1 Class Discussion

Example 6.3

a) vE b) gm c) iC d) vC e) vc1-vc2 f) gain at 1000Hz

I 1

VCC 15

RC 10

vB1( t) 5 0.005 sin 2 1000 t

vB2( t) 5 0.005 sin 2 1000 t

vBE 0.7

at 1mA

a)
VBE 0.7 0.025 ln

0.5

vE 5 VBE

VBE 0.683
vE 4.317

b)
gm

IC

gm 20

VT

c)
iC1( t) 0.5 gm 0.005 sin 2 1000 t

iC2( t) 0.5 gm 0.005 sin 2 1000 t

0.6
iC1( t ) 0.5
iC2( t )

0.4
0.3

0.001

0.002

0.003
t

0.004

0.005

d)
vC1( t ) ( VCC IC RC) 0.1 RC sin 2 1000 t
vC2( t ) ( VCC IC RC) 0.1 RC sin 2 1000 t

11
vC1( t )
vC2( t )

10

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.003

0.004

0.005

e)

vC2( t ) vC1( t )

0.001

0.002
t

Other Non-Ideal Characteristics

Input Offset Voltage

Input Bias and Offset Currents

Exercise 6.4
100
Delta_RC 0.02

Delta_IS 0.1

Delta_ 0.1

I 100

From Eq. 6.55

2

Delta_RC
VOS VT

RC

VOS 25 ( 0.02) 0.1

IB

Delta_

VOS 2.55

IB 0.495

2 1

IOS IB

Delta_IS

IS

IOS 4.95 10

50nA

Biasing In BJT Integrated Circuits

Many resistors, transistors and capacitors makes impossible to use
conventional biasing methods
Biasing in IC is based on the use of constant-current sources
The Diode-Connected Transistor
Shorting the base and the collector of a BJT results in a twoterminal device having an I-v characteristic identical ot the
iE-vBE of the BJT.

i
i
1

Since the BJT is still in active mode (vCB=0 results in an

active mode operation) the current I divides between base
and collector according to the value of the BJT Beta.
Thus, the BJT still operates as a transistor in the active mode.
This is the reason the I-v characteristics of the resulting
diode is identical to the iE-vBE relationship of the BJT

Exercise 6.5

R incremental = r // (1/gm) // ro
1

gm
1

r
Rinc
r
r

ro

gm

1
gm
1
gm

r
r

ro

ro

ro

re ro
re ro

re

Rinc

25
0.5

Rinc 50

The Current Mirror

For what value of would

current mirror have a gain error
1%, 0.1 %

Io

Imperfection due to base

current diverted from reference
current IREF
IO

IE

IO

IREF

IREF

IE

Finite Beta and Early Effect

IO

1
1

I REF

V O V EE V BE

VA

Exercise 6.6
VEE 5
Rout

VBE 0.7

IO

at

IREF

100

Rout 1 10

IREF

at

VO

VB

IREF
1

IREF 0.001

VA

ro

Rout

100

VO VEE VBE

VO 4.3

IO 9.804 10

VO 5

IO5 IO

5 ( 4.3)
Rout

IO5 1.073 10

A Simple Current Source

IREF

Io
VCC

I REF

V CC V BE
R

Neglecting the effect of finite beta and

Dependence of Io and Vo, the output
current Io will be equal IREF

VBE

Exercise 6.7
IO

IREF 0.001

IREF

VCC 5

neglect the effects ro and finite Beta

at

VCC VBE
IREF

VO 3

100

R 4.3 10

IREF

1 2

VA 50

ro

IO

VBE 0.7

VO VBE
ro

VA
IREF

ro 5 10

IO 1.026 10

Current-Steering Circuits

I REF

Generation of a number of cross currents.

V CC V EE V EB1 V BE2
R

IC Circuits
2 power supplies
IREF is generated in the branch of
the diode-connected transistor Q1,
resistor R, and the diode-connected
transistor Q2.

Exercise 6.9

Comparison With MOS Circuits

1 - The MOS mirror does not suffer from the finite Beta
2 Ability to operate close to the power supply is an important issue on IC design
3 - Current Transfer: BJTs ~ relative areas; MOS ~ W/L
4 - VA lower for MOS

Improved Current-Source Circuits

IREF

IO

IE

IO
IREF

IREF

I
E
1 2
2

1
1

1
2

VCC VEB1 VBE3

R

The Wilson Current Mirror

Output resistance equal

ro
2
A factor greater the then simple
Current source
Disadvantage: reduced output swing.
Observe that the voltage at the collector at
Q3 has to be greater than the negative
supply voltage by
(vBB1 = VCEsat-3), which is about a volt.

Exercise 6.10
2

1
2

1 2

2
1

2 I E

IREF

I E

IO

I E

IE

I E

I E

I E
1

IE

IE

IE

IO
IREF
IO
IREF

1 2

I
E
2
1
2

IE

2 2

Widlar Current Source

It differs from the basic current mirror in an

important way: a resistor RE is included in
the emitter lead of Q2. Neglecting the base
current we can write:

VB1

IREF

VT ln

VB1 VB2

VB1

IO RE

IS

VB2

IREF

VT ln

IO

VB2 IO RE

IREF

VT ln

IO

IO

VT ln

IS

Example 6.2

Example 6.3

Example 6.3

Multistage Amplifiers Example 6.4 pg. 552

Calculating 1st stage gain
-- Assuming
V
100
re1 re 2 I TE .25
25
Model Eqs. on Pg. 263

re

gm

( VI ) ( I

VT

( 1 )

r 1 r 2 ( 1)(re )
101*100 10.1k
Rid r 1 r 2 20.2k
In the same manor

Ri 2 r 4 r 5
Ri 2 2 ( 1) r
2 (101 25) 5.05k

Current sources for biasing amplifying stages

Multistage Amplifiers Example 6.4 pg. 552

Total collector resistance

Calculating 1st stage gain

1
Ri2

Total emitter resistance

A1

vo 1
vid

I C RC _ Total _ R
I E RE _ Total _ R

Ri 2 ||( R1 R2 )
re1 re 2

5.05 k||40 k
200

22.4 VV

Multistage Amplifiers Example 6.4 pg. 552

Calculating 2nd stage gain

Ri3

Ri 3 ( 1)( R4 re 7 )

re 7

VT
IC

25
1

25

Ri 3 101 (2.3k 25)

234.8k
re4 and re5 calc. before

A2

R3 || Ri 3
re 4 re 5

3 k||234.8 k
50

59.2

V
V

Potential gain is halved b/c converting to single-ended output

Multistage Amplifiers Example 6.4 pg. 552

Calculating 3rd stage gain
Purpose is to allow amplified
signal to swing negatively

re8
Ri4

25
5

Ri 4 ( 1)(re8 R6 )
101(5 3000) 303.5k

A3

vo 3
vo 2

R5 || Ri 4
re 7 R4

15.7 k||303.5 k
2.325 k

6.24

V
V

Multistage Amplifiers Example 6.4 pg. 552

Calculating 3rd stage gain

vo
vo 3

A4

3000
3005

R6
re 8 R6

.998 VV

Overall Gain

A
Output Resistance

vo
vid

A1 A2 A3 A4 8513 VV

Ro R6 || (re8

R5
1

) 152

The BJT Differential Amplifier With Active Load

vo

g m v d Ro
ro2 ro4

Ro

ro2

ro2 ro4
ro

Ro

vo

vo

g m ro

vd

IC

gm

ro

VT

g m ro

VA
VT

ro4

2 r

ro

g m v d

VA

IC

IC

I
2

constant for a given transitor

Ri

ro

Gm

gm

VT

The Cascode Configuration

The Cascode Configuration

BJT Single Stage Common-Emitter Amplifier

MOSFET Operation

MOS Differential Amplifiers MOS Differential Pair

MOS Differential Amplifiers Offset Voltage

MOS Differential Amplifiers Current Mirrors

Problem 6.1

RC 3000
at

vBE 0.7

iC 0.0005

vE vCM vBE
iC1

iC

vC1 VCC iC1 RC

iC 0.001

vCM 2

vBE 0.7 0.025 ln

vE 2.683
4

iC1 4.95 10

vC1 3.515

0.5
1

VCC 5
vBE 0.683

100

Problem 6.15

vd 0.1
ie

re 25
vd

2 ( re RE)

RE 100
4

iE1 1.4 10

iE2 IE ie

iE2 6 10

vc1 ie RC

vc1 2

vc2 vc1
vd

RC 5000

ie 4 10

iE1 IE ie

Ad

IE 0.001

Ad 40

vc2 ie RC

vc2 2

BJT Differential Amplifier Laboratory

Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to investigate the behavior of a BJT difference amplifier. The circuits behavior needs to be
modeled with theoretical equations and a computer simulation. Comparison of laboratory results with theoretical and
simulated results is required for the relative validity of the models.
This lab also investigates the variation of differential and common mode gains using a Monte Carlo analysis.
Procedure
Construct the circuit in Figure 1 on PSpice and a Jameco JE26 Breadboard using a Hewlett-Packard 6205 Dual DC Power
Supply as the voltage sources and an MPQ2222 Bipolar Junction Transistor (Q2N2222).
Using a Keithley 169 Digital Multi-Meter measure the voltages across the resistors to determine the transistor base current
and collector current. From these current values calculate .

Figure 1) Circuit for testing transistor value

Figure 2

Next construct the amplifier

circuit shown in Figure 2.
All transistors are
MPQ2222 Bipolar Junction
Transistors. Use PSpice to
construct the circuit.
Measure the DC values at the
collector of Q1 and Q2. Do
the measured values agree
with theoretical ones.
Measure the DC value at the
emitter of Q1 and Q2. Do
the measured value agree
with the theoretical one.
Indicate the inverting and noninverting output.
Input an AC signal into Q1 of
your circuit at frequencies .
What is the single voltage
gain of your circuit?

Both inputs (Vin1 and Vin2) should be then grounded in order to determine the DC
operating point of the amplifier. Bias point voltages are measured and then compared to
the bias points produced by the PSpice simulation. Record DC bias point data.
Use a Wavetek 190 Function Generator with a sinusoidal input voltage of amplitude 0.031
V and apply to one of the input terminals and the other terminal remained grounded, as
shown in figure 2. Use a Tektronix TDS 360 Digital Oscilloscope and a Fluke 1900A MultiMeter the output of the amplifier to observe input signal frequencies. Determine the corner
frequency (3-dB point) of the output and compared with the corner frequency generated
with an AC sweep in PSpice. Plot the PSpice AC sweep simulation.
Next calculate the differential mode voltage gain, AV-dm, from the laboratory data and
compare to the AV-dm predicted by the PSpice simulation and theoretical equations. Both
inputs are tied together to create a common mode signal on the input terminals. The
output voltage is then used to calculate the common mode voltage gain, A V-cm, and then
compared to the AV-cm predicted by the PSpice simulation and theoretical equations. From
these values the common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) should be calculated for each
case.
Finally, PSpice should be used to perform a Monte Carlo analysis of the circuit. The
resistors were all given standard unbridged values and were allowed to vary uniformly
within 5% of the nominal resistor value. The transistors should be given a nominal value
(say 175) and allowed to vary uniformly to +/- 100. The variations of differential and
common mode gains should be graphed on two histograms.

Analysis / Questions
What are the values of for the first transistor?
(typical values of range from approximately 125 to 225)
With the exception of the Monte Carlo analysis, all transistors were assumed to have this value in the
PSpice simulations. All four transistors were contained within one integrated circuit so that hopefully there
would be little change in values from one transistor to the next, making the previous assumption
reasonably valid.
How close are the measured DC bias points of the circuit to those predicted by the PSpice simulation?
What is the reason for the small differences between measured and predicted voltages?

Exercises 6.17

An Active-Loaded CMOS Amplifier

Exercise 6.19

BiCMOS Amplifiers
Exercise 6.20

BiCMOS Amplifiers
Exercise 6.21

BiCMOS Amplifiers
Exercise 6.22

BiCMOS Current Mirrors and Differential Amplifiers

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Amplifiers

Current sources Exercise 6.23

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Amplifiers

A Cascode Current Source Exercise 6.24

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Amplifiers

Increasing The Output Resistance by Bootstrapping

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Amplifiers

A Simple Cascode Configuration The Composite Transistor

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Amplifiers

Differential Amplifiers

Multistage Amplifiers
Example 6.4

Multistage Amplifiers
Example 6.5 SPICE Simulation of a Multistage Amplifier