CHAPTER 3

SIGNAL

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Position of The Physical

Layer

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Analog and Digital Signal

Analog information is something that

is continuous.

E.g human voice

Digital information is something that

is discrete

E.g. data stored in the memory of

computer in the form of 0s and 1s
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Analog and Digital Signals

Figure 3.1

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Comparisonofanaloganddigitalsignals

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Periodic and Non-Periodic

Both analog and digital signals can be in two forms:

1.
2.

Periodic
Non-periodic

Periodic signals consists of continuous repetitive

pattern within a time frame called period
The completion of one full pattern is called cycle
The amount of time(in seconds) required to
complete one full cycle is called period
Non periodic signals has no repetitive pattern
Can be decomposed into infinite number of periodic
signals

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Periodic signal

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Aperiodic Signal

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Analog Signals

Simple or composite analog signal

Sine wave can be described by
three characteristics
1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase

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Sine wave signal

S(t) = A sin (2ft + )

Figure 3.2

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A sine wave

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Simple Analog Signals

Amplitude

The value of signal at any point on the wave

on a time domain plot graph
Measured by volts, ampere or volts

Period(P)

The amount of time(in seconds) needs to

complete in cycle
Frequency(f) the number of cycles in a
second ( expressed in Hertz)
P = 1/f . F=1/P
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Figure 3.3

Amplitude

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Frequency

Frequency is the rate of change with respect to

time. Change in a short span of time means
high frequency. Change over a long span of
time means low frequency
If a signal does not change at all, its frequency
is zero. If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite

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Figure 3.4

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Period and frequency

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Table 3.1 Units of periods and frequencies

Unit
Seconds (s)

Equivalent
1s

Unit
hertz (Hz)

Equivalent
1 Hz

Milliseconds (ms)

103 s

kilohertz (KHz)

103 Hz

Microseconds (ms)

106 s

megahertz (MHz)

106 Hz

Nanoseconds (ns)

109 s

gigahertz (GHz)

109 Hz

Picoseconds (ps)

1012 s

terahertz (THz)

1012 Hz

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Example 1
Expressaperiodof100msinmicroseconds,andexpressthe
correspondingfrequencyinkilohertz.

Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalent of 1 ms. We make the
following substitutions:
100 ms = 100 10-3 s = 100 10-3 10 s = 105 s
Now we use the inverse relationship to find the frequency,
changing hertz to kilohertz
100 ms = 100 10-3 s = 10-1 s
f = 1/10-1 Hz = 10 10-3 KHz = 10-2 KHz
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Analog Signals

Phase

Described the position of the waveform

relative to time zero
Measured in degrees or radians(360
degrees in 2 radians)
Four types of phase 0 degrees, 90
degrees, 180 degrees, 270 degrees.

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Phase Change

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Example 2
A sine wave is offset one-sixth of a cycle with
respect to time zero. What is its phase in degrees
and radians?

Solution
We know that one complete cycle is 360 degrees.
Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
(1/6) 360 = 60 degrees = 60 x 2 /360 rad = 1.046 rad
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Analog Signal

Time and Frequency domain

To show relationship between

amplitude and frequency, we use
frequency domain plot
An analog signal is best represented
in the frequency domain.

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Figure 3.7

Time and frequency domains

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Analog Signals

Complex Analog Signals

Periodic signals that are not sine waves

Can be decomposed into multiple sine waves
using Fourier Analysis.

Bandwidth and Frequency Spectrum

Frequency Spectrum the collection of all sine

waves signals that make that signal
Bandwidth the width of the frequency spectrum
Mathematically , B = highest frequency lowest
frequency

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Figure 3.13

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Bandwidth

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Example 3
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves
with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz,
what is the bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming
all components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.

Solution
B = fh fl = 900 100 = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500,
700, and 900 (see Figure 13.4 )
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Figure 3.14

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Example 3

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Example 4
A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60
Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the
signal contains all integral frequencies of the same amplitude.

Solution
B = fh fl
20 = 60 fl
fl = 60 20 = 40 Hz
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Figure 3.15

Example 4

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Example 5
A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between 1000 and
2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000 Hz). A medium can pass
frequencies from 3000 to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of 1000 Hz).
Can this signal faithfully pass through this medium?

Solution
The answer is definitely no. Although the signal can have the
same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the range does not overlap. The
medium can only pass the frequencies between 3000 and 4000
Hz; the signal is totally lost.
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Digital Signals

Bit interval and Bit Rate

Most digital signals are non-periodic period and

frequency is not appropriate
Can be described by bit interval(instead of period)
and bit rate(instead of frequency).
Bit interval(s) - the time required to send one
single bit
Bit rate(bps) the number of bit intervals per
second
Digital signal can be decomposed into an infinite
number of sine waves

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Digital Signal

Figure 3.16

A digital signal

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Example 6
A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps. What is the
duration of each bit (bit interval)

Solution
The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate.
Bit interval = 1/ 2000 s = 0.000500 s
= 0.000500 x 106 s = 500 s
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Digital Signal

Bit Interval = 1/
Bit rate

Figure 3.17

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Bit rate and bit interval

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Digital Signals

Significant Bandwidth and Medium

Bandwidth

Frequency spectrum recreate at the receiver with

distortion is called significant spectrum and its
bandwidth is significant bandwidth
Bit rate has a relation to significant bandwidth
bit rate increases, significant bandwidth widens
A transmission medium has a limited bandwidth
called medium bandwidth
If medium bandwidth less than required
significant bandwidth, the signal is distorted

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Digital Signals

The maximum bit rate a

transmission medium can transfer
is called channel capacity of the
medium

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Figure 3.18

Digital versus analog

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Analog Versus Digital

Digital Transmission

Usually needs a bandwidth between 0 to

infinity(f).
The BW between 0 to f for low pass signal
The lower limit is fixed and the upper limit
can be relaxed if we lower our standard by
accepting a limited number of harmonics

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Digital Versus Analog

Analog Transmission

Analog normally has narrower BW than

digital signal between f1 and f2
BW in analog can always be shifted as
long as the width of the BW remain
same.
Ex, analog cellular telephony, a limited
BW divided between many telephone
users
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Figure 3.19

Low-pass and band-pass

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Data Rate Limits

Data rate depends on

1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of signal we use
3. The quality of the channel(level of
noise)

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Data Rate Limits

Noiseless channel:Nyquist Bit Rate

Nyquist bit rate formula defines

theoretical maximum bit rate

BitRate = 2 x Bandwidth x log2L

Bandwidth = BW of the channel
L = number of signal level used to
represent data
BitRate = bit rate per second
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Example 7
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000
Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Bit Rate = 2 3000 log2 2 = 6000 bps

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Example 8
Consider the same noiseless channel, transmitting a
signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send
two bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as:

Bit Rate = 2 x 3000 x log2 4 = 12,000 bps

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Data Rate Limits

Noisy Channel:Shannon Capacity
Highest data rate for noisy channel
Capacity = BW x log2 ( 1 + SNR )
BW = bandwidth of the channel
SNR = signal to noise ratio( statistical ratio
of the power of the signal to the power of
noise)
Capacity = capacity in channel in bit
persecond
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Example 9
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the
value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In
other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is
faint. For this channel the capacity is calculated as
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = B log2 (1 + 0)
= B log2 (1) = B 0 = 0
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Example 10
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a
regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 Hz to 3300 Hz). The
signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel
the capacity is calculated as
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 3000 log2 (1 + 3162)
= 3000 log2 (3163)
C = 3000 11.62 = 34,860 bps

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Example 11
We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this
channel is 63; what is the appropriate bit rate and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper limit.
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps

Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the

number of signal levels.
4 Mbps = 2 1 MHz log2 L L = 4

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Transmission Impairment

The imperfection cause signal

through the media are not same at
the beginning and end of the
medium.
3 types of impairment
1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise
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Transmission Impairment
Attenuation
means loss of energy
When signal travels through medium, it
loss of its energy that is overcome the
resistance of the medium.
Some energy converted to heat.
To compensate, amplifier used to amplify
the signal
Decibel(DB) Measure the relative strength
signal of two signal at 2 different point
Decibel(DB) = 10 log2 (P2/P1)
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Attenuation

Figure 3.21

Attenuation

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Transmission Impairment
Decibel(dB)
To measure the relative strength of two
signal or a signal at two different point.
Signal negative mean signal is
attenuated
Signal positive signal is amplified
dB = 10 log10 (P2/P1)
P1 and P2 are the power of signal at point
1 and 2
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Example 12
Imagine a signal travels through a transmission medium
and its power is reduced to half. This means that P2 =
1/2 P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can
be calculated as

Solution
10 log10 (P2/P1) = 10 log10 (0.5P1/P1) = 10 log10 (0.5)
= 10(0.3) = 3 dB
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Example 13
Imagine a signal travels through an amplifier and its
power is increased ten times. This means that P2 = 10
P1. In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can
be calculated as
10 log10 (P2/P1) = 10 log10 (10P1/P1)
= 10 log10 (10) = 10 (1) = 10 dB
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Example 14
One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the changes
in the strength of a signal is that decibel numbers can be added
(or subtracted) when we are talking about several points instead
of just two (cascading). In Figure 3.22 a signal travels a long
distance from point 1 to point 4. The signal is attenuated by the
time it reaches point 2. Between points 2 and 3, the signal is
amplified. Again, between points 3 and 4, the signal is
attenuated. We can find the resultant decibel for the signal just
by adding the decibel measurements between each set of points.

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Figure 3.22

Example 14

dB = 3 + 7 3 = +1
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Transmission Impairment
Distortion
Means the signal change its form
or shape
Occurs in a composite signal,
made of different frequencies

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Figure 3.23

Distortion

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Transmission Impairment
Noise
Several types such as thermal noise,
induced noise, crosstalk and impulse noise
may corrupt the signal
Thermal noise random motion of electron
in a wire which create an extra signal
Induced noise come form source such as
motors and appliances
Crosstalk effect of one wire to another
Impulse noise a signal with high energy
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Figure 3.24

Noise

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More about signal

Throughput
The measurement of how data can
pass through an entity(such as a
point or a network)
The number of bits that can pass the
wall in one second

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Throughput

Figure 3.25

Throughput

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More about signal

Propagation Speed

Measure the distance a signal or a bit can

travel through a medium in one second

Propagation Time

The time required for a signal(or a bit) to

travel) from one point of the transmission
medium to another
Propagation time = Distance/Propagation speed

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Figure 3.26

Propagation time

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More about signal

Wavelength
The distance a simple signal can
travel in one period.
Wavelength = propagation speed x
Period

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Figure 3.27

Wavelength

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End of Chapter 3

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