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BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

TRANSFORMERS

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What is Transformer?
Transformer is an ac machine that
Transfers electrical energy from one electric circuit to another

electric circuit
It basically changes the level of voltages from one value to the other at

constant frequency.
Does so by the principle of electromagnetic induction
Has electric circuits that are linked by common electric circuit

Since the construction of a transformer requires no moving

parts it is known as static transformer.

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Types Transformer
There are two types
Step Down Transformer
Step Up Transformer

Step Up Transformer:
When the output voltage of a transformer is higher than input
voltage then the transformer is known as step up transformer.
Step Down Transformer:
When the input voltage of a transformer is higher than output

voltage then the transformer is known as step up transformer.

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Principle of Operation of Transformer


A transformer in its simplest form will consist of a rectangular

laminated magnetic structure on which two coils of different number


of turns are wound as shown in Figure
Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction of two coils.
When current in the primary coil is changed the flux linked to the

secondary coil also changes


Consequently an EMF is induced in the secondary coil.

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Construction of a Transformer
Two types of iron-core construction:
a)

Core - type construction

b)

Shell - type construction

Core - Type Construction:


When alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding, an

alternating current will flow that will magnetize the magnetic


core.
First in one direction and then in the other direction.

This alternating flux flowing around the entire length of the


magnetic circuit induces a voltage in both primary &
secondary windings.
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Cont
Since both windings are linked by the same flux , voltage

induced per turn of


the primary and secondary
windings must be the same value and same direction.
This voltage opposes the voltage applied to the primary

winding and is called counter-electromotive force (CEMF).

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Shell - Type Construction


The shell-type transformer is considered the most efficient.

Such transformers are used in transmitting commercial power.


The core of the shell-type transformer is made of laminated

silicon steel sheets placed on top of one another.


The coils are wound around

the central section of the core.

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Cont...

Since the primary and secondary coils are wound close together

around the core, the windings must be highly insulated. A


special insulating material is coated on the wires of both coils.
For the high voltage used in x-ray, the entire transformer is

immersed in a container filled with a special insulating oil or


gas. The insulating oil also helps to cool the transformer during
operation.

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Transformer on DC
Transformer can not work on DC
because if the dc voltage is applied to the primary of the

transformer then the flux linking with the primary will not
vary and will remain constant in magnitude. Therefore no
emf is induced in the secondary.
Also there is no self induced emf in primary. The resistance

of primary coil is very low and a high current will flow


across the primary which will result burning of primary coil
according to ohms law.
V=IR
This is the reason that DC is never applied to transformers.
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Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is a transformer which has no loses, i.e.

its winding has no ohmic resistance, no magnetic leakage,


and therefore no I2 R and core loses.
However, it is impossible to realize such a transformer in

practice.
Yet, the approximate characteristic of ideal transformer will

be used in characterized the practical transformer


N1 : N2

Thus udder no load condition,

I1
V1

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I2
E1

E2

V2

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Transformer Equation
Faradays Law states that,
If the flux passes through a coil of wire, a voltage will be induced in

the turns of wire. This voltage is directly proportional to the rate of


change in the flux with respect of time.

Vind Emf ind


If we have N turns of wire,

Vind Emf ind


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d (t )

dt
Lenzs Law

d (t )
N
dt
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Transformer Equation
For an ac sources,
Let V(t) = Vm sint

i(t) = im sint
Since the flux is a sinusoidal function;

Then:
Therefore:

(t ) m sin t
d m sin t
dt
N m cos t

Vind Emf ind N

Thus:

Vind Emf ind (max) N m 2fN m


Emf ind ( rms )

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N m 2fN m

4.44 fN m
2
2
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Transformer Equation
For an ideal transformer

E1 4.44 fN1 m

(i)

E2 4.44 fN 2 m
In the equilibrium condition, both the input power will be equaled to the output power,

and this condition is said to ideal condition of a transformer.

Input power output power


V1 I1 cos V2 I 2 cos

V1 I 2

V2 I1

From the ideal transformer circuit, note that,

E1 V1 and E2 V2
Hence, substitute in (i)
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Transformer Equation

N1 : N2
I1

Therefore ,

E1 N1 I 2

a
E 2 N 2 I1

V1

I2
E1

E2

V2

Where, a is the Voltage Transformation Ratio;


Ratio which will
determine whether the transformer is going to be step-up
or step-down
For a >1

E1 > E2

For a <1

E1 < E2

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Transformer Rating
Transformer rating is normally written in terms of Apparent

Power.
Power
Apparent power is actually the product of its rated current and
rated voltage.
voltage

VA V1 I1 V2 I 2
Where,
I1 and I2 = rated current on primary and secondary winding.

V1 and V2 = rated voltage on primary and secondary winding.

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Rated currents are actually the full load currents in


transformer
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Transformer Losses
Generally, there are two types of losses:
Iron or core losses
i. Hysteresis Loss
ii.Eddy Current Loss
Copper or ohmic losses
Iron losses are of two types and these are expressed as:

Piron=Pc=(Ic)2Rc=Popen circuit
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Eddy Currents:
Eddy currents induced in the core cause the core to heat, resulting

in power loss in the transformer.


To reduce eddy currents to a minimum, the material making up the

transformer core is laminated and each strip is sprayed with an


insulating coating.

Hysteresis Losses:
Since the use of AC causes a rapidly changing magnetic field,

there is a continuous reversal of the magnetic polarity in the core


of the transformer.
The tiny magnetic particles in the core are constantly shifted

around, arranging themselves first in one direction and then in


another, resulting in the development of friction between the
molecules, which produces heat in the core
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Since the electrical energy required to shift the molecules around

must come from the primary current, some electrical energy is


wasted.
This loss, hysteresis, can be lessened by using a core material of high

permeability

Copper or ohmic losses:


Copper loss is power lost in the primary and secondary

windings of a transformer due to the ohmic resistance of the


windings. Copper loss, in watts, can be found using Equation

Copper Loss= I2P RP+ I2S RS

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IP = primary current

IS =secondary current

RP =primary winding resistance

RS =secondary winding resistance

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Transformer Efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of useful

power output to the input power.


Power output = power input power losses
Power input

= power output + total losses


= power output + Pi + Pcu

Output Power
100%
Input Power
Pout

100%
Pout Plosses

Efficiency,

V2 I 2 cos

100%
V2 I 2 cos Pc Pcu
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( full load )
( load n )

VA cos
100%
VA cos Pc Pcu

nVA cos

100%
2
nVA cos Pc n Pcu
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INDUCTION
MOTOR

An induction motor works on transforming action(Faraday

law of Electro-magnetic induction) which state that an


induced EMF is established in the circuit whenever the
magnetic field linking that circuit is changed.

These motors are simple ,rugged, need less maintenance

and are less expensive(for the same volt, rpm, torque) and
has characteristics to suit industrial requirements , high
efficiency .

The stator works as the primary while the rotor works as

the secondary.

Applications : Fans, pumps, exhaust , roller coaster, trains,

Spindle drives , lifts,cranes ,blowers

Construction of Induction Motor


It consists of two parts:
1.Stator - It is the stationary part of the motor.
It is a hollow cylindrical structure, it is made up of sheet
steel lamination each about 0.4 mm thick , the slots are open
for large motors to facilitate the insertion of coils, for small
motors the slots are generally closed and are inserted through
the narrow opening.
2. Rotor - It is the rotating part of the motor.
It is the inner cylindrical core

Slots

Stator Stamping

Tooth

SLOTS

CORE

WINDINGS

Stator has three main parts:


Outer Frame It is the outer body of the
of
the motor.
It protects the inner part of the machine.
It serve as ventilating housing

Stator Core it has to carry magnetic flux which can


produce hysteresis and eddy current losses, Built up of
high grade silicon steel.
Stator winding Has a three phase
winding the
winding can be star or delta connected.

Stator
It consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow,

cylindrical core made up of thin laminations of steel to


reduce hysteresis and Eddy current losses.
The insulated conductors are placed in the slots to form
balanced 3 phase star or delta circuit.
Greater is the pole less is the speed.
When a 3 phase supply is given to the stator winding , a
rotating magnetic field is produced.
This rotating field induces currents in the rotor by EMI.

Rotor is an iron laminated cylinder with large

embedded conductors in the form of copper


or aluminum bars in the semi-closed slots.

There are two types of rotors which are

employed in 3 phase induction motor.

Squirrel Cage Rotor.

Phase Wound/ Slip Ring Rotor.

It consists of a laminated cylindrical core

having semi closed circular slots at the outer


periphery.
Copper or aluminum bar conductors are
placed in these slots and short circuited at each
end by copper or aluminum rings called short
circuiting rings.
The rotor winding is permanently short
circuited and it is not possible to add any
external resistance.

The rotor slots are not parallel to the shaft but

skewed to

Reduce humming .

Provide

smoother torque for different positions of

rotor.
Reduce

magnetic locking of stator and rotor.

Squirrel cage three phase induction motor: The rotor of the squirrel cage three

phase induction motor is cylindrical in shape and have slots on its periphery. The
slots are not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed (skewing is not shown
in the figure of squirrel cadge rotor beside) as the skewing prevents magnetic
locking of stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of motor more smooth and
quieter. The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars (copper
bras rotor is shown in the figure beside). These aluminum, brass or copper bars are
called rotor conductors and are placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The
rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the copper or aluminum rings called
the end rings. In order to provide mechanical strength these rotor conductor are
braced to the end ring and hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like a
cage and hence got its name as squirrel cage induction motor.

The squirrel cage rotor winding is made symmetrical. As the bars are

permanently shorted by end rings, the rotor resistance is very small and it
is not possible to add external resistance as the bars are permanently
shorted. The absence of slip ring and brushes make the construction of
Squirrel cage three phase induction motor very simple and robust and
hence widely used three phase induction motor. These motors have the
advantage of adapting any number of pole pairs. The below diagram shows
squirrel cage induction rotor having aluminum bars short circuit by
aluminum end rings.

Advantages of squirrel cage induction rotor1. Its construction is very simple and rugged.
2. As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors
requires less maintenance.
Applications:
Squirrel cage induction motor is used in lathes, drilling
machine, fan, blower printing machines etc

It is also called SLIP RING ROTOR


Consists of a laminated core having semi closed slots

at the outer periphery and carries a 3-phase insulated


winding.

The rotor is wound for the same number of poles as

that of stator.

The three finish terminals are connected together

forming a star point and the three star terminals are


connected to three slip rings fixed on the shaft.

Slip ring / wound three phase


induction motor

In this type of three phase induction motor the rotor is wound for the same number of poles as
that of stator but it has less number of slots and has less turns per phase of a heavier conductor.
The rotor also carries star or delta winding similar to that of stator winding. The rotor consists
of numbers of slots and rotor winding are placed inside these slots. The three end terminals are
connected together to form star connection.
As its name indicates three phase slip ring induction motor consists of slip rings connected on
same shaft as that of rotor.
The three ends of three phase windings are permanently connected to these slip rings. The
external resistance can be easily connected through the brushes and slip rings and hence used
for speed control and improving the starting torque of three phase induction motor.
The brushes are used to carry current to and from the rotor winding. These brushes are further
connected to three phase star connected resistances.
At starting, the resistance are connected in rotor circuit and is gradually cut out as the rotor
pick up its speed.
This reduces wear and tear of the brushes. Due to presence of slip rings and brushes the rotor
construction becomes somewhat complicated therefore it is less used as compare to squirrel
cage induction motor.

Advantages of slip ring induction motor 1. It has high starting torque and low starting current.
2. Possibility of adding additional resistance to control
speed
Application:
Slip ring induction motor are used where high starting
torque is required i.e in hoists, cranes, elevator etc

Difference between Slip Ring


and Squirrel Cage Induction
Motor

Principle of Operation
A rotating field is set up in the stator when a 3-

Phase

supply is given.
The stationary rotor cut the revolving field and due to

electromagnetic induction an e.m.f. is induced in the rotor


conductor.
As the rotor conductor is short circuited current flows

through them.
It becomes a current carrying conductor in magnetic field

and start rotating.

Slip
Induction motor rotor always rotate at a speed less than

synchronous speed.
The difference between the flux (Ns) and the rotor speed (N)
is called slip.
% Slip =

(Ns N)
Ns

Slip speed = Ns N

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Working

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SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR

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Issues to be addressed in the


unit

Motor Basics
Motor parameters
Basic construction and operating features of DC motors
Torque and EMF characteristics of DC motor
Speed characteristics and Regulation
Applications of DC motor

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Motor Basics
Motors convert electric energy to mechanical motion.

Either an AC or DC electrical energy source serves as

the input to the motor.


Motors are powered by electricity, but rely on
principles of magnetism to produce mechanical motion.
The result is mechanical motion of the output shaft, that
is a rotation about or a translation along the shaft,
provided the load carried by the shaft does not exceed
the maximum load the motor is designed to carry.
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Motor
Parameters

The level of performance a motor can provide is


described by its parameters. These include:
Rated Speed
Speed measured in shaft revolutions per minute
(RPM), a way to specify how fast the motor
turns.
Torque
Rotational force produced around a given point,
due to a force applied at a radius from that point
Torque-Speed performance of a motor
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Construction of DC motor
Every DC motor has six basic parts :
Shaft
Rotor (Armature)
Stator
Commutator
Field magnet(s) / Poles
For a small motor the magnets is
made from permanent magnet

Brushes

DC motor : Components

Field pole
North pole and south pole
Receive electricity to form magnetic field

Armature
Cylinder between the poles
Consists of coils of insulated wires wound around an iron
and so arranged that electric current are induced in these
wires, when armature is rotating.
Electromagnet when current goes through
Linked to drive shaft to drive the load
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DC Motor : Components

Commutator
Form of rotating switch placed between armature and
external circuit.
Reverse the current direction between the rotor and external
circuit.
Overturns current direction in armature.
Brushes
To collect current from the commutator and supply it to
external load circuit.

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Operating principle of DC
motor

Electrical current flowing in a loop of wire will produce a magnetic field

across the loop.

When this loop is


surrounded by the field
of another magnet, the
loop will turn,
producing a force
(called torque) that
results in mechanical
motion.
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How the Commutator Works


As the rotor turns, the commutator terminals also turn and

continuously reverse polarity of the current it gets from


the stationary brushes attached to the battery.

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Controlling Motor Direction


To change the direction of rotation:
Simply switch the polarity of the battery leads going to the
motor (that is, switch the + and battery leads)
Direction of
Rotation
+ - +

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DC motor rotation

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DC motor : Equivalent circuit


As the rotor is rotating,

back emf (Ea) will be


produced, the faster the
rotor turn the higher Ea

Ia

Ea

motor

and the smaller Ia.


The starting current of motors will be much higher

then the rating current.

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DC motor : Connections

Field winding

Armature winding

For big motors the magnet

is made from coil and core.


The current flowing in the
coil is called If and the
current flowing in the
armature is called Ia.
The armature winding and

the field winding are


connected to a common
power supply
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DC motor : Types
1.

Series DC motor :

Field and armature winding


are series connected, this type
of motor is called series DC
motor
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2. Shunt DC motor

Field and armature winding are


parallel connected, this type of
motor is called shunt DC motor

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3. Compound DC motor

Compound DC motor is DC
motor having 2 field winding the
first one is connected parallel to
the armature winding and the
other is connected series

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Characteristics of DC motor
Torque (T):
T = KIa

EMF (E):
E=KN
K is a constant
magnetic flux
Ia is armature current
N is speed of motor
Magnetic flux is constant if it is from permanent magnet

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Separately excited DC motor:


Field current supplied from a separate source
Self-excited DC motor: shunt motor

Field winding
parallel with
armature winding
Current = field
current + armature
current

Electrical Engineering

Speed constant
independent of load
up to certain torque

Speed control:
insert resistance
in armature or
field current
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Self-excited DC motor: series motor


Suited for high
starting torque:
cranes, hoists

Speed restricted to
5000 RPM
Avoid running with
no load: speed
uncontrolled

Field winding in
series with
armature winding
Field current =
armature current

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DC compound motor
Suited for high
starting torque if high
% compounding:
cranes, hoists

Good torque and


stable speed

Higher %
compound in
series = high
starting torque

Field winding in
series and
parallel with
armature winding

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Practice problems
1.

A 250 V dc shunt motor takes 30 A current while running at full load.


The resistance of motor armature and field windings are 0.1 ohm and 200 ohm
respectively.Determine the back emf generated in the motor when running at
full load.

2.

A series motor of resistance 1 ohm between terminals runs at 1000 rpm at 250
V with current of 20 A. Find the speed at which it will run when connected in
series with a 6 ohm resistance ad taking the same current at same supply
voltage.

Ans.

1. 247.125 V

2. 478.3 rpm

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Advantages of DC motor :
High starting torque

Speed control over a wide range,both above and below

normal speed
Accurate seedless speed control
Quick starting and stopping

Disadvantages of DC motor:
High initial cost
Increased operating and maintenance costs

because of commutator and brush gear


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pplications of DC motors:
Lathes, Drills, Boring Mills, Shapers, Spinning and

Weaving Machines.
Elevators, air compressors, vacuum cleaners, hair
drier
Sewing machines, Presses

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