Micromechanics

Macromechanics
Fibers

Lamina
Laminate
Structure

Matrix

Macromechanics
Study of stress-strain behavior of composites
using effective properties of an equivalent
homogeneous material. Only the globally
averaged stresses and strains are considered,
not the local fiber and matrix values.

Stress-Strain Relationships for

Anisotropic Materials
First, we discuss the form of the stress-strain
relationships at a point within the material,
then discuss the concept of effective moduli
for heterogeneous materials where properties
may vary from point-to-point.

General Form of Elastic - Relationships

for Constant Environmental Conditions

ij Fij (11 , 12 , 13 ,...),

i, j 1, 2,3... (2.1)

Each component of stress, ij, is related to

each of nine strain components, ij
(Note: These relationships may be
nonlinear)

Expanding Fij in a Taylors series and

Retaining only the first order terms,

ij Cijkl kl ,

i, j , k , l 1,2,3

for a linear elastic material

ij 9 components
kl 9 components
Cijkl 81 components

3D state of stress

Generalized Hookes Law for

Anisotropic Material
11

22

11

33

C
C
C

C
= C
C

23
31

12
32

13
21

1111
2211
3311
2311
3111
1211

...

C
C

3211
1311
2111

C
C
C
C
C
C

1122
2222
3322
2322
3122
1222

...

C
C
C

3222
1322
2122

C
C
C
C
C
C

1133
2233
3333
2333
3133
1233

...

C
C
C

3233
1333
2133

C
C
C
C
C
C

1123
2223
3323
2323
3123
1223

...

C
C
C

3223
1323
2123

C
C
C
C
C
C

1131
2231
3331
2331
3131
1231

...

C
C
C

3231
1331
2131

C
C
C
C
C
C

1112
2212
3312
2312
3112
1212

...

C
C
C

3212
1312
2112

..

C
C
C
C
C
C

1132
2232
3332
2332
3132
1232

...

C
C
C

3232
1332
2132

C
C
C
C
C
C

1113
2213
3313
2313
3113
1213

...

C
C
C

3213
1313
2113

22

C1121

C
C
C
C
C

33

2221

3321

2321

...

C
C
C

3121

1221

3221

1321

2121

(2.2)

23
31

12
32

13
21

Symmetry Simplifies the Generalized

Hookes Law
1. Symmetry of shear stresses and strains:

21
2
1

12

Static Equlibrium

0 implies 12 21
or in general ,
0

ij ji or ij ji

Same condition for shear strains, ij

ji

2. Material property symmetry several types will

be discussed.

Symmetry of shear stresses and shear strains:

ij ji and ij ji
Thus, only 6 components of ij are
independent, and likewise for ij.
This leads to a contracted notation.

Stresses
Tensor Notation
Contracted
Notation
11
1
22

33

23= 32

13= 31

12= 21

Strains
Tensor Notation
Contracted
Notation
11

22

33

2 23= 2 32= 23= 32

2 13= 2 31= 13= 31

2 12= 2 21= 12= 21

Geometry of Shear Strain

xy
xy
2

xy = Engineering Strain
xy = Tensor Strain
xy
xy
2

Total change in original angle = xy

Amount each edge rotates = xy/2 = xy

Using contracted notation

i Cij j
i, j 1,2,...,6
or in matrix form C

(2.3)
(2.4)

where and are column vectors

and [C] is a 6x6 matrix (the stiffness
matrix)

Alternatively,
i Sij j
or

i, j 1,2,...,6

(2.5)
(2.6)

where [S] = compliance matrix

and

S C

Expanding:

1

2
3

1

2
3

S11
S
21
S31

S12
S 22
S32

S13
S 23
S33

S14
S 24
S34

S15
S 25
S35

S16

S 26
S36

4
5

S 41
S51

S 42
S52

S 43
S53

S 44
S54

S 45
S55

S 46
S56

S 61

S 62

S 63

S 64

S 65

S 66 6

4
5

 Up to now, we only considered the stresses

and strains at a point within the material,
and the corresponding elastic constants at a
point.
What do we do in the case of a composite
material, where the properties may vary
from point to point?
Use the concept of effective moduli of an
equivalent homogeneous material.

Concept of an Effective Modulus of an Equivalent

Homogeneous Material
Heterogeneous composite
under varying stresses and
strains

x3

2 L

Equivalent homogeneous x
3
material under average
stresses and strains

x3

Stress, 2

Strain, 2

x3

Stress

Strain

Effective moduli, Cij

i Cij j
where,
i average stress

(2.9)

i dv

(2.7)

dv

i average strain

i dv

(2.8)

dv

3-D Case
General Anisotropic Material
[C] and [S] each have 36 coefficients, but
only 21 are independent due to symmetry.
Symmetry shown by consideration of strain
energy.
Proof of symmetry:
Define strain energy density
1
W i i i 1,2,...,6
2

1
1
1
W 11 11 ... 6 6
2
2
2

i Cij j
1
W Cij i j
2

but

(2.12)

Now, differentiate:

but

j
W 1
1
Cij j Cij i
i 2
2
i

ij Kronec ker delta 1 if i=j

i
0 if ij

 ij i j

(show)

Cij j
i
2W

Cij
i j

(2.11)

(2.13)

But if the order of differentiation is reversed,

C ji
j i
2

(2.14)

Since order of differentiation is immaterial,

Cij C ji (Symmetry)
Similarly,

and

1
W Sij i j
2

Sij S ji

Only 21 of 36 coefficients are

independent for anisotropic material.

Stiffness matrix for linear elastic

anisotropic material with no material
property symmetry

(2.15)

3-D Case, Specially Orthotropic

3

er
b
Fi

re
i
d

n
o
i
ct

1, 2 , 3 principal
material coordinates

12
2

1
(a)

12
(b)

(c)

Simple states of stress used to define lamina

engineering constants for specially orthotropic
lamina.

Consider normal stress 1 alone:

3

1
2

Resulting strains,

1
1
1 ; 2 121 12
E1
E1

(2.19)

Typical stress-strain curves from

ASTM D3039 tensile tests

Stress-strain data from longitudinal tensile test of carbon/epoxy composite.

Reprinted from ref. [8] with permission from CRC Press.

Similarly,

1
3 131 13
E1
where E1 = longitudinal modulus

ij = Poissons ratio for strain

along j direction due to
loading along i direction

Now consider normal stress 2 alone:

Strains:

2
2 ;
E2

2
1 21 2 21
E2

2
3 23 2 23
E2
Where E2 = transverse modulus
Similar result for 3 alone

2
3

1
2

2
(2.20)

 Observation:
All shear strains are zero under pure
normal stress (no shear coupling).

12 13 23 0
For

1 , 2 , 3 alone

Now, consider shear stress

3

12 alone,

1
2

12
Strain 12
G12

12 12

Where G12 = Shear modulus in 1-2 plane

1 2 3 13 23 0
(No shear coupling)

(2.21)

Similarly, for 13 alone

13
13
; 1 2 3 12 23 0
G13
and for 23 alone

23

23

; 1 2 3 13 12 0
G23

Now add strains due to all stresses using

superposition

Specially Orthotropic 3D Case

1
E1

12

E1
13

E1

1

2
3

23

31

12

31
E3

21
E2

1
E2

32

E3

23

E2

1
E3

1
G23

1
G31

0
0

2
3

23
31

12

1
G12

12 coefficients, but only are 9 independent

(2.22)

Symmetry:

Sij S ji

ij
Ei

ji
Ej

Only 9 independent coefficients.

Generally orthotropic 3-D case
similar to anisotropic with 36 nonzero
coefficients, but 9 are independent as with
specially orthotropic case

Specially Orthotropic Transversely Isotropic

3

c
r
fo
n
i
e
R

t
n
e
m
e

Fibers randomly packed in 2-3

plane, so properties are invariant to
rotation about 1-axis (2 same as 3)

Specially orthotropic, transversely isotropic

(2 and 3 interchangeable)

G13 G12 , E2 E3 , 21 31
E2
G23
2(1 32 )

(2.23)

Now, only 5 coefficients are independent.

Isotropic
G13 G23 G12 G
E1 E2 E3 E
12 23 13
E
G
2(1 )

2 independent coefficients
Usually measure E, calculate G

Isotropic 3D case
1
E

1

2
3

4
0
5

6
0

E
1
E

E
1
E

1
G

1
G

2
3

4
5

Same form for any set of coordinate axes

3-D Isotropic stresses in terms of strains

E
(1 ) x ( y z )
x
(1 )(1 2)
E
(1 ) y ( x z )
y
(1 )(1 2)

E
(1 ) z ( x y )
z
(1 )(1 2)

 xy G xy

xy
2(1 )

xy G xy

xy
2(1 )

xy G xy

xy
2(1 )

3-D Case, Generally Orthotropic

z
nt
e
m
e
c
r
o
f
in tion
e
R ec
dir

Material is still orthotropic,

but stress-strain relations
are expressed in terms of
non-principal xyz axes

Generally Orthotropic

S 11
x

S 21
y
S 31
z

S 41
yz
S 51
zx

xy
S 61

S 12
S 22
S 32
S 42
S 52
S 62

S 13
S 23
S 33
S 43
S 53
S 63

S 14
S 24
S 34
S 44
S 54
S 64

S 15
S 25
S 35
S 45
S 55
S 65

S 16

S 26
S 36

S 46

S 56

S 66

x

y
z

yz
zx

xy

Same form as anisotropic, with 36 coefficients, but 9

are independent as with specially orthotropic case

Elastic coefficients in the stress-strain relationship for different

materials and coordinate systems
Material and coordinate system

Number of nonzero
coefficients

Number of
independent coefficients

Anisotropic

36

21

Generally Orthotropic
(nonprincipal coordinates)

36

Specially Orthotropic (Principal coordinates)

12

Specially Orthotropic, transversely isotropic

12

Isotropic

12

Anisotropic

Generally Orthotropic
(nonprincipal coordinates)

Specially Orthotropic (Principal coordinates)

Balanced orthotropic, or square symmetric

(principal coordinates)

Isotropic

Three dimensional case

Two dimensional case (lamina)

2-D Cases
Use 3-D equations with,

3 13 23 0

Plane stress,

1 , 2 , 12 , 0
Or

x , y , xy , 0

Specially
Orthotropic
Lamina

1 S11

2 S 21
0
12

S12
S 22
0

0
0
S 66

2 (2.24)

12

Or

2
1

1
Q11 Q12

2 Q21 Q22

0
0
12

0 1

0 2
Q66 12

5 Coefficients - 4 independent

(2.26)

Specially Orthotropic Lamina in Plane Stress

1 S11

2 S 21
0
12

S12
S 22
0

1

2

S 66 12
0
0

5 nonzero coefficients
4 independent coefficients

(2.24)

Or in terms of engineering constants

1
S11
E1

1
S 22
E2

21
12
S12 S21

E2
E1

1
S 66
G12

(2.25)

Experimental Characterization of
Orthotropic Lamina
Need to measure 4 independent elastic
constants
Usually measure E1, E2, 12, G12
(see ASTM test standards later in Chap. 10)

Stresses in terms of tensor strains,

1 Q11 Q12

2 Q21 Q22
0
0
12

0
2Q66

where Q S

12 / 2

(2.26)

Inverting [S]:
S22
E1
Q11

2
1 12 21
S11 S22 S12

S12
12 E2
Q12

2
1 12 21
S11 S22 S12
S11
E2
Q22

2
1 12 21
S11 S22 S12

1
Q66
G12
S 66

Off Axis Compliances:

S ij f ij all Sij and angle

Off Axis Stiffnesses:

Q ij f ij ' all Qij and angle

Where fij and fij are found from transformations

of stress and strain components from 1,2 axes to
x, y axes

Sign convention for lamina orientation

y
2

y
1

Positive

Negative

Stress Transformation:

2 dA sin

Y
2

12 dA sin
X

12 dA cos
1dA cos

xy dA

0 and Fy 0

x dA

dA

x dA 1dA cos 2 dA sin

2

2 12 dA sin cos 0

x 1 cos 2 sin 2 12 sin cos

2

xy 1 cos sin 2 cos sin

12 (cos sin )
2

Equations used to generate Mohrs circle.

(2.29)

Resulting stress Transformation:

X c2 s2
2cs

2
2
Y s
c
2cs
XY cs cs c 2 s 2

1
1

1
2 T 2


12
12

Where c cos , s sin

or

1
X

2 T Y


12
XY

(2.31)

(2.30)

Where

c2 s2
2cs
2

2
[T ] s
c
2cs
cs cs c 2 s 2

(2.32)

Strain Transformation:

x
1

2 T y
/ 2
12 / 2
xy

(2.33)

Recall: Tensor shear strain

1
xy xy
2
Where xy = engineering shear strain
or

x
1

1
y T 2
/ 2
xy / 2
12

Substituting (2.33) into (2.26), then substituting

the resulting equations into (2.30)
x
x

1
(2.34)
y [T ] [Q][T ] y

/ 2
xy
xy
Carrying out matrix multiplications and
converting back to engineering strains,
Q11 Q12 Q16 x
x

y Q12 Q 22 Q 26 y

Q
Q
Q
xy
26
66
xy
16

(2.35)

Where

Q11 Q11c Q22 s 2(Q12 2Q66 ) s c

4

2 2

Q11

(2.36)

Q 66
Alternatively
x S 11

y S 12
S 16
xy
Where

S 12
S 22
S 26

[Q]

S 16 x

S 26 y
S 66 xy

(2.37)

Generally
Orthotropic
Lamina (Off
Axis)

S 11

S 12

y S 12
S 16
xy

S 22

S 26

S 16 x

S 26 y
S 66 xy

(2.37)

Or

Q11

Q12

y Q12
Q
xy 16

Q 22

Q 26

Q16 x

Q 26 y
Q 66 xy

9 Coefficients - 6 independent

In expanded form:
S11 S11c 4 2S12 S66 s 2c 2 S 22 s 4

S12 S12 s 4 c 4 S11 S 22 S66 s 2c 2

S 22 S11s 4 2 S12 S66 s 2c 2 S 22 c 4

(2.38)

S16 2 S11 2 S12 S66 sc 3 2S22 2S12 S66 s 3c

S 26 2 S11 2 S12 S66 s 3c 2S22 2S12 S66 sc 3

S66 2 2 S11 2 S22 4 S12 S66 s 2c 2 S66 s 4 c 4

Off-axis lamina engineering constants

Youngs modulus, Ex
2
y
x

or
Ex

x
Ex
x
When x 0, y xy 0
x
1
Ex

(2.39)
S 11 x S 11
1
1 4 212
1 2 2 1 4
c
c s
s
E1
E1
G12
E2

(2.40)

Complete set of transformation equations for lamina

engineering constants
1 4 1
2
1 4
Ex
c
12 s 2 c 2
s
E1
E2
E1
G12

1 4 1
212 2 2 1 4
Ey
s

c
s c
E
G
E
E
1
1
2
12

1
1
1 212
1 2 2
4
4
Gxy
s c 4

s c
G
E
E
E
2
G
12

2
1
12
1

12 4

1
1
1
s c4

s 2 c 2
E1 E2 G12
E1

xy E x

(2.40)
1

Variations of off-axis engineering constants with lamina orientation for

unidirectional carbon/epoxy, boron/aluminum and glass/epoxy composites.
(From Sun, C.T. 1998. Mechanics of Aircraft Structures. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
With permission.)

Shear Coupling Ratios, or Mutual

Influence Coefficients
Quantitative measures of interaction
between normal and shear response.
Example: when x 0,

y xy 0,

Shear Coupling Ratio

x , xy

xy S 16 x S 16

x S 11 x S 11

Analogous to Poissons Ratio

(2.41)

Example of off-axis strain in terms of

off-axis engineering constants

yx
xy , x
1
x
x
y
xy
Ex
Ey
Gxy

(2.43)

Compliance matrix is still symmetric for

off-axis case, so that, for example

S12 S 21
and

yx
Ey

xy
Ex

Balanced Orthotropic Lamina

(Ex: Woven cloth, cross-ply)

E1 E2

Q11 Q22
1

S11 S 22
Only 3 independent
coefficients

Lamina Stiffness Transformations

Q11

Q 22

Q
12

Q 66
Q
16
Q 26

c4
4
s
c2s2
2 2
c s
c3s

3
cs

s4
4
c
2 2
c s
2 2
c s

2c 2 s 2
2 2
2c s
4
4
c s
2 2
2c s

4c 2 s 2
2 2
4c s
2 2
4c s
2
2 2
(c s )

Q11
Q22

Q12
cs 3 cs 3 c 3 s 2(cs 3 c 3 s ) Q66

3
3
3
3
3
c s c s cs 2(c s cs )

Use of Invariants
The lamina stiffness transformations can be
written as:

Q11 U1 U 2 cos 2 U 3 cos 4

Q12 U 4 U 3 cos 4
Q 22 U1 U 2 cos 2 U 3 cos 4
U2
Q16
sin 2 U 3 sin 4
2
U2
Q 26
sin 2 U 3 sin 4
2

(2.44)

Where the invariants are

1
U1 (3Q11 3Q22 2Q12 4Q66 )
8
1
U 2 (Q11 Q22 )
8
1
U 3 (Q11 Q22 2Q12 4Q66 )
8
1
U 4 (Q11 Q22 6Q12 4Q66 )
8
1
U 5 (Q11 Q22 4Q66 2Q12 )
8

(2.45)

Alternatively, the off-axis compliances can be

expressed as
S11 V1 V2 cos 2 V3 cos 4
S12 V4 V3 cos 4
S22 V1 V2 cos 2 V3 cos 4
S16 V2 sin 2 2V3 sin 4
S26 V2 sin 2 2V3 sin 4
S66 2(V1 V4 ) 4V3 cos 4

(2.46)

where the invariants are

1
V1 (3S11 3S22 2S12 S66 )
8
1
V2 (S11 S22 )
2
1
V3 (S11 S22 2S12 S66 )
8
1
V4 (S11 S22 6S12 S66 )
8

(2.47)

Example: decomposition of Q11 using invariants

Q11

Q11

U 3 cos 4

U 2 cos 2

U1

U2

U3

References: Mechanics of Composite Materials, Jones

Introduction to Composite Materials, Tsai
& Hahn

Invariants in transformation of stresses:

Mohrs circle
Ex :
x
x I R cos 2 p
R

2 p

Where

(2.48)

x y
I

Invariant
2
2

x y
2
xy Invariant
R
2

Similar graphical interpretation of stiffness

transformations
Ex: Q11 U1 U 2 cos 2 U 3 cos 4
Isotropic
Part

Orthotropic Part

(2.49)

U1 and U4: First

order invariants
U2 and U3:
Second order
invariants

Radii of circles indicates degree of orthotropy.

(i.e., if U2=U3=0, we have isotropic material)