STRUCTURAL DESIGN (CENG

5506)
CHAPTER ONE: LOAD AND LOAD
EFFECTS
Instructor: Dawit A.

LOAD AND LOAD EFFECTS

INTRODUCTION

The aim of structural design is to ensure that, with

an acceptably high probability, a structure will
remain fully functional during its intended life

It is necessary to identify and, more importantly,

quantify the various types of load which act on its
members

Wind Load on Structures

Wind

forces are variable loads which act directly

on internal and external surface of structures

The

intensity of wind load on the structure is

related to the square of the wind velocity and

the dimension of the members that are resisting
the wind (frontal area).
Wind

velocity is dependent on geographical

location, the height of the structure, the

topography of the area and the roughness of the
surrounding terrain.


.CONTD

The response of a structure to the variable action

of wind can be separated in to two components, a
back ground component and resonant component.

The

back ground component involves static

deflection of the structure under the wind

pressure.
The

resonant component, on the other hand,

involves dynamic vibration of the structure in

response to the changes in wind pressure
The

resonant component is relatively small and

structure response to wind force is treated using

static methods of analysis alone

Static effects of wind load on buildings

Reference

Wind Velocity:- is defined as the

mean wind velocity at 10 m above farmland
averaged over a period of 10 minutes with a
return period of 50 years
Vref = C DIR CTEM C ALT Vref , 0
Where Vref,0 is 22 m/s (page 2 hound out)
Exposure coefficient:
Wind velocity tends decrease near ground level
owing to frictional forces b/n the wind and the
ground
The exposure coefficient takes account of the
variation from the reference wind velocity due to
the ground roughness around the structure
level 7 K T

2 ground
2
above
the
C e (Z ) C
r ( Z )C t ( Z ) 1

C
(
Z
)
C
(
Z
)

r
t

Terrain Categories and Related

Parameters

Topographic coefficient (pp58 EBCS 1)

The

topography coefficient Ct(Z) accounts f or

the increase o f mean wind speed over isolated
hills
and escarpments(not undulating and
mountainous
regions).
It is related t o the wind velocity at the base of
the hill or escarpment
Roughness Coefficient
The roughness coefficient, Cr(z), accounts for the
variation of mean wind velocity due to the
height of the structure above the ground level
and roughness of the terrain
Cr(z) = krIn(zlz0)
for Zmin <Z < 200m
Cr(z) = Cr(zmin)
for z < Zmin

Table Roughness coefficient Cr


The wind pressure
(acting on the
External
Wind Pressure

external surface
of the structure) is a function of the reference
wind velocity which is given by:
1
2
2]
q ref =Vref
[N/mm
2
Where = air density [kg/m3]
Table Values of Air density

External Wind Pressure

Contd
the external pressure
=
W

C e ( z e )C pe q ref

Reference height for the calculation of external

pressure coefficients depend on the breadth to
height ratio of the structure (pp5 hand out)

The external pressure coefficient, C pe, accounts

for the variation in dynamic pressure on different
zones of the structure due to its geometry, area
and proximity to other structures.


Internal pressure
arises due to openings,
Internal
Wind pressure
such as windows, doors and vents, in the
cladding
In general if the wind panel has a great
proportion than the leeward panel, then
the interior of the structure is subjected to
positive (outward) pressure
Conversely if the leeward has more
openings, then the interior is subjected to

Internal pressure on a building

Ce Z
i
i C pi q ref height for internal
Wherew
Zi
=the
reference
pressure equal to the mean height of the
openings
Cpi = the internal pressure coefficient. The
magnitude of Cpi depends on the distribution of
openings around the building.

Wind forces on the structure

The total wind forces acting on individual
zones of clad structures are proportional
to the difference in pressure between the
external and internal forces

Fw we wi Aref

Where Fw = the total inward force

Aref = the reference area, generally equal to
the projected area of the zone

Seismic Design
An

earthquake is a sudden and transient motion of

the earths surface
Performance criteria for EQ Resistance Design
A structure should be able to
Resist EQs of minor intensity without damages
Resist moderate EQs with minor structural and nonstructural damages
Resist major catastrophic EQs without collapse.
Seismic Load resistive structural systems
Horizontal Diaphragms:- it consists of elements
such as roofs, floor framing and/or the deck system
having sufficient strength and stiffness with rigid
and useful planes.

Contd
Open

rigid frames:- Consists of beam and column

framed

together to

produce

moment

resisting

system and are the most flexible types of lateral

load resistive system.
Braced

frames:- refers to the use of trussing or

triangulation of the frame to achieve its lateral

stability
Vertical

building,

Diaphragms:- Shear walls are wall of

essentially

function

as

lateral

load

resistive systems, but may serve as bearing walls

for gravity frames of studs RC shear wall.

Guides to planning and detailing of EQ

resistance structural systems
A

simple symmetrical building in both plan and

elevation is generally preferred to irregular shaped
structure.
All lateral resisting elements must participate in
carrying the EQ induced forces in proportion to their
stiffness.
The need to adequately tie together all the structural
elements making up a building or portion of it which
is intended to act as unity.
The different portion of a building should either be
tied together adequately or separated from each
other by sufficient distance to prevent their
hammering against each other.
The use of very stiff walls to fill the spaces b/n
relatively more flexible frame elements should be
considered carefully.
Firm stratum for foundation

Principal EQ design provisions

Equivalent static ( Codal procedure) method
The response spectrum method, and

Time history method

Design process/ steps

Determination of design EQ which involves

calculation of base shear corresponding to the computed or
estimated fundamental period of vibration of the structure
Distribution of the base shear over the height of the
building
Analysis of the structure under the lateral forces in
combination with gravity loadings or any other to obtain
the governing design forces
Designing members and joints for the most unfavourable
combination of gravity and lateral loads, with emphasis
placed on the design and detailing of members and their
connections to ensure ductility of the member

Design Base Shear ( as per EBCS 8,

1995)
The base shear is assumed to act parallel to
the axis of the structure and is given as

Fb S d (Ti )W
S d (Ti ) =
oI

is the ratio of
acceleration to g

1 .2 S
2 / 3 2 .5
T

the

design

bed

rock

contd
S = is the site coefficient for soil characteristic
given as
Subclass

A-

includes

rock,

stiff

deposits,

gravel or over consolidated soil

Subclass

B- deep deposit, medium dense sand,

gravel or medium stiff clay

Subclass

C- includes loose cohesion less soil

deposit of soft to medium stiff cohesive soil

T = is fundamental period of vibration of the
structure to translational motion in the direction
3 / to
4 80 m
of motion and for building up

T CH

Distribution of Base Shear

Fi

( Fb Ft )Wi hi
n

W h
j 1

Fi =

is the concentrated lateral force acting

at floor i,
Ft = is a concentrated extra force at the top
of the building accounting slender building
(pp14 hand out)