MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES
WELDING INTRO

JOINING PROCESS
Welding is a joining process.
Joining may be preferred for one or
more of the following reasons: Product
is
impossible
or
uneconomical to manufacture as a
single piece.
The
product
is
easier
to
manufacture
in
individual
components,
which
are
then
assembled, then as a single piece.
2

NEED FOR JOINING

Different
properties
may
be
desirable for functional purpose of
the product.
Transportation of the product in
individual components are more
economical than transporting it as
a single piece

JOINING PROCESS
Three joining techniques are
commonly used.
Mechanical joints
Adhesives
Welding and allied processes

MECHANICAL JOINTS

ADHISIVES

WELDING JOINTS

WELDING DEFINATION
Welding is a process of permanent joining
two materials (usually metals) through localised
coalescence
resulting
from
a
suitable
combination of temperature, pressure and

metallurgical conditions.
Depending upon the combination of temperature
and pressure from a high temperature with no
pressure to a high pressure with low
temperature, a wide range of welding

processes has been developed.

8

WELDING DEFINATION
Welding is a fabrication process that
joins materials, usually metals, by
causing coalescence.
This is often done by melting the
workpieces and adding a filler
material to form a pool of molten
material (the weld pool) that cools to
become a strong joint, with pressure
sometimes used in conjunction with
heat, or by itself, to produce the weld.
9

ADVANTAGES
Strong and tight joining.
Cost effectiveness.
Simplicity of welded structures
design.
Welding
processes
may
be
mechanized and automated.

10

DISADVANTAGES
Internal stresses, distortions and
changes of micro-structure in the
weld region.
Harmful effects: light, ultra violate
radiation, fumes, high temperature.

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BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES

STRUCTURES

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AUTOMOTIVE, SHIP AND AIRCRAFT

CONSTRUCTIONS

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PIPE LINES

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TANKS AND VESSELS

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RAILROADS

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MACHINERY ELEMENTS

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CLASSIFICATION
There are two groups of welding
processes according to the state of
the base material during the welding
process:
a) Liquid-state welding (fusion welding )
b) Solid-state welding.

18

a. Liquid-state (fusion welding )

Fusion welding is defined as the melting
together and joining of materials by means
of heat, usually supplied by chemical or
electrical means; filler metals may or
may not be used.
Fusion welding is composed of consumable
and non consumable-electrode
arc
welding and high-energy-beam welding
processes.
Fusion welding is by far the more important
category.
19

a. Liquid-state (fusion welding )

The fusion category includes the most
widely used welding processes, which can
be organized into the following general
groups
Arc welding
Resistance Welding (also Solidstate welding)
Oxyfuel gas welding
Other fusion welding (Electron
beam & Laser beam)
20

b. Solid-state welding
Solid-state welding refers to joining
processes in which joining results from
application of pressure alone or a
combination of heat and pressure.
Joining
takes
place
without
fusion;
consequently, there is no liquid (molten)
phase in the joint.
If heat is used, the temperature in the
process is below the melting point of the
metals being welded.
No filler metal is utilized.
21

b. Solid-state welding
Representative welding processes in
this group include:
Friction welding
Diffusion welding
Ultrasonic welding
Resistance Welding ( also fusion
welding )

22

1. Arc Welding
Arc welding is a fusion-welding process, in
which heat is generated by an electric arc
struck between an electrode and the work
piece.
Any arc welding method is based on an electric
circuit consisting of the following parts:
Power supply (AC or DC);
Welding electrode;
Work piece;
Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the
electrode and work piece to the power supply.
23

1. Arc Welding

24

1. Arc Welding

The basic configuration and electrical circuit of an

arc-welding process.

25

1. Arc Welding
Electric arc between the electrode and
work piece closes the electric circuit.
An electric arc is a discharge of electric
current across a gap in a circuit.
It is sustained by the presence of a
thermally ionized column of gas (called a
plasma) through which current flows.
The arc temperature may reach 5500C,
which is sufficient for fusion the work
piece edges and joining them.
26

1. Arc Welding
A pool of molten metal, consisting of
base metal(s) and filler metal (if one is
used) is formed near the tip of the
electrode.
In most arc-welding processes, filler
metal is added during the operation to
increase the volume and strength of the
weld joint.
Chemical compositions of filler metal is
similar to that of work piece.
27

1. Arc Welding - ELECTRODES

CONSUMABLE electrodes - are used
in SMAW, SAW & GMAW.
NON-CONSUMABLE electrodes
are used in GTAW.

28

1. Arc Welding - ELECTRODES

CONSUMABLE electrodes provide the
source of the filler metal in arc welding.
These electrodes are available in two
principal forms:
rods (also called sticks) and
wire.

Welding rods are typically 225 to 450

long and 9.5 mm or less in diameter.
29

1. Arc Welding - ELECTRODES

The problem with consumable welding
RODS, at least in production welding
operations, is that they must be changed
periodically, reducing arc time of the
welder.
Consumable weld WIRE has the advantage
that it can be continuously fed into the
weld pool from spools containing long
lengths of wire, thus avoiding the frequent
interruptions that occur when using welding
sticks.
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1. Arc Welding - ELECTRODES

Non-consumable electrodes are made
of tungsten (or carbon, rarely), which
resists melting by the arc.
Despite its name, a non-consumable
electrode is gradually depleted during
the welding process (vaporization is the
principal mechanism), analogous to the
gradual wearing of a cutting tool in a
machining operation.
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1. Arc Welding - ELECTRODES

For arc welding processes that utilize
non-consumable electrodes, any filler
metal used in the operation must be
supplied by means of a separate wire
that is fed into the weld pool.
If no filler rod is used with nonconsumable electrode then the process
is called Autogenous.
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1. Arc Welding - ARC

SHIELDING
At the high temperatures in arc welding,
the metals being joined are chemically
reactive to oxygen , nitrogen , and
hydrogen in the air.
The mechanical properties of the weld
joint can be seriously degraded by
these reactions.
Thus, some means to shield the arc
from the surrounding air is provided in
nearly all arc welding processes.
33

1. Arc Welding - ARC

SHIELDING
Arc shielding is accomplished by covering
the electrode tip, arc, and molten weld pool
with a blanket of gas or flux, or both, which
inhibit exposure of the weld metal to air.
Common shielding gases include argon and
helium, both of which are inert.
In the welding of ferrous metals with certain
Arc Welding processes, oxygen and carbon
dioxide are used, usually in combination
with Ar and/or He.
34

1. Arc Welding - FLUX

A flux is a substance used to prevent the
formation of oxides and other unwanted
contaminants, or to dissolve them and
facilitate removal.
During welding, the flux melts and becomes
a liquid slag, covering the operation and
protecting the molten weld metal.
The slag hardens upon cooling and must
be removed later by chipping or brushing.
35

1. Arc Welding - FLUX

Flux is usually formulated to serve several
additional functions:
provide a protective atmosphere for welding,
stabilize the arc,
provide a protective
slag
coating to
accumulate impurities, prevent oxidation, and
slow the cooling of the weld metal,
affect arc penetration (the depth of melting in
the workpiece)
add alloying elements to the weld,
to reduce spatter.
36

1. Arc Welding - FLUX

The method of flux application differs for

each process. The delivery techniques include
1. pouring granular flux onto the welding
operation,
2. using a stick electrode coated with flux
material in which the coating melts during
welding to cover the operation, and
3. using tubular electrodes (flux cored) in
which flux is contained in the core and
released as the electrode is consumed.
37

The Functions of The Electrode

Coating
1. Shielding of the Weld Metal - The most
important function of a coating is to shield the
weld metal from the oxygen and nitrogen of the
air.
. This shielding is necessary to ensure the weld
metal will be sound, free of gas pockets, and
have the right strength and ductility.
. At the high temperatures of the arc, nitrogen
and oxygen combine readily with iron to form
iron nitrides and iron oxides that, if present in
the weld metal above certain minimum
amounts, will cause brittleness and porosity.
38

The Functions of The Electrode

Coating
2. Stabilization of the Arc - A stabilized

arc is one that starts easily, burns

smoothly even at low amperages, and
can be maintained using either a long
or a short arc length.

39

The Functions of The Electrode

Coating
3. Alloying Additions to Weld Metal - A

variety of elements such as chromium,

nickel,
molybdenum,
vanadium
and
copper can be added to the weld metal by
including them in the coating composition.
. It is often necessary to add alloys to the
coating to balance the expected loss of
alloys of the core wire during the welding
operation,
due
to
volatization
and
chemical reaction.
40

The Functions of The Electrode

Coating
Mild steel electrodes require small
amounts of carbon, manganese and
silicon in the deposit to give sound
welds of the desired strength level. A
portion of the carbon and manganese
is derived from the core wire, but it is
necessary to supplement it with
ferromanganese and in some cases
ferrosilicon additions in the coating.
41

The Functions of The Electrode

Coating
4. Concentration of the Arc Stream -

Concentration or direction of the arc

stream is attained by having a coating
crater form at the tip of the electrodes
as discussed earlier. Use of the
proper binders assures a good hard
coating that will maintain a crater and
give added penetration and better
direction to the arc stream
42

The Functions of The Electrode

Coating

Flux
Coating

Electrode

Coating
crater

43

The Functions of The Electrode

Coating

Flux
Coating

Electrode

Welding Arc

44

The Functions of The Electrode

Coating
5. Furnish Slag for Fluxing - The function of

the slag is (1) to provide additional

protection
against
atmospheric
contamination, (2) to act as a cleaner and
absorb impurities that are floated off and
trapped by the slag, (3) to slow the cooling
rate of the molten metal to allow the
escape of gases. The slag also controls
the contour, uniformity and general
appearance of the weld. This is
particularly true in fillet welds.
45

The Functions of The Electrode

Coating
6. Characteristics for Welding Position -

It is the addition of certain ingredients,

primarily titanium compounds, in the
coating that makes it possible to weld
out-of-position
,
vertically,
and
overhead.
Slag
characteristics,
primarily surface tension and freezing
point, determine to a large degree the
ability of an electrode to be used for
out-of-position work.
46

The Functions of The Electrode

Coating
7. Specific Mechanical Properties to
the Weld Metal - Specific mechanical

properties can be incorporated into

the weld metal by means of the
coating. High impact values at low
temperature, high ductility, and
increases
in
yield
and
tensile
properties can be attained by alloy
additions to the coating.
47

The Functions of The Electrode

Coating
8. Insulation of the Core Wire - The

coating acts as an insulator so that

the core wire will not short-circuit
when welding in deep grooves or
narrow openings; coatings also serve
as a protection to the operator when
changing electrodes.

48

Classification of coating
Ingredients

Coating materials can be classified

into the following 6 major groups:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Alloying Elements
Binders
Gas Formers
Arc Stabilizers
Fluxes and Slag Formers

49

Classification of coating
Ingredients
1. Alloying
Elements
Alloying
elements such as molybdenum,
chromium, nickel, manganese and
others impart specific mechanical
properties to the weld metal.

50

Classification of coating
Ingredients
2. Binders - Soluble silicates such as
sodium and potassium silicates, are used
in the electrode coating as binders.
Functions of binders are to form a plastic
mass of coating. The final baked coating
should be hard so that it will maintain a
crater and have sufficient strength so that
it will not spall, crack or chip. Binders are
also used to make coating non-flammable
and avoid premature decomposition.
51

Classification of coating
Ingredients
3. Gas Formers - carbohydrates,
hydrates, and carbonates. Examples
would be cellulose (such as wood
flock), the carbonates of calcium &
magnesium,
and
chemically
combined water as is found in clay
and mica. These materials evolve
(CO2), (CO), and water vapor (H2O) at
the high temperature.
52

Classification of coating
Ingredients
4. Arc Stabilizers - Air is not sufficiently
conductive to maintain a stable arc, so
it becomes necessary to add coating
ingredients
that
will
provide
a
conductive path for the flow of current.
This is particularly true when welding
with alternating current. Stabilizing
materials are titanium compounds,
potassium compounds, and calcium
compounds.
53

Classification of coating
Ingredients
5. Fluxes and Slag Formers - These
ingredients are used primarily to give
body to the slag and impart such
properties as slag viscosity, surface
tension, and melting point. Silica and
magnetite are materials of this type

54

Classification of coating
Ingredients
The chart shows typical coating constituents
and their functions for two types of mild steel
electrodes. Note that the moisture content in
the cellulosic E6010 is much higher than in
the low hydrogen E7018 type. The moisture
in the E6010 coating is necessary to produce
the driving arc characteristic and is not
harmful when welding the lower strength
steels. Hydrogen can cause problems when
welding the higher strength steels and will be
discussed in detail in Lesson IV.
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Classification of coating
Ingredients

56

1. Arc Welding POWER

SOURCES
Two types:
a) Constant Current (Drooping)
b) Constant Voltage

57

a). CONSTANT CURRENT POWER

SOURCE

In Constant Current [CC] power source,

variation in welding current with arc voltage
(due to fluctuations in arc length) is very
small.
welding current remains more or less
constant in spite of fluctuations in arc
voltage/length.
suitable for those welding processes where
large fluctuation in arc length is observed like
in Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) and
Tungsten Inert Gas TIG welding.
58

a). CONSTANT CURRENT POWER

SOURCE
V

VO
IS

Open circuit
voltage
Short-Circuit
Current
Large change in
voltage

VO
Arc Voltage

25
%

Small change in
current

IS

4%

59

a). CONSTANT CURRENT POWER

SOURCE
The constant current (CC) welding
machine is called a drooper because
of this curve.
A 25% change in voltage results in
only a 4% change in amperage.
The current change is so slight that
the current is considered constant.

60

a). CONSTANT CURRENT POWER

SOURCE
Following points should be kept in
mind regarding CC power source:
It has high OCV (open circuit voltage:the voltage when the welding is not being
performed).
High OCV ensure easy initiation and
maintenance of arc.
Low short circuit current.

61

b). CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER

SOURCE
In CV power source, very small variation in
arc voltage (due to fluctuation in arc length)
causes significant change in welding current.
Since arc voltage remains almost constant
therefore this type of power sources are
called constant voltage power source.
Constant voltage power source does not
have true constant voltage output. It has
slightly downward or negative slope.
62

b). CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER

SOURCE
suitable for all those welding
processes where small fluctuations in
arc length can take place, like in
semiautomatic welding processes MIG
& SAW .

63

b). CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER

SOURCE
VO Open circuit

V
VO

voltage

Small change in
voltage

2-3 Volt per

100 A
Large change in
current

I
64

b). CONSTANT CURRENT POWER

SOURCE
Following points should be kept in
mind regarding CV power source:
It has slightly low OCV as compared to CC
power source.
High short circuit current.

65

ARC LENGTH
Arc length is an important factor to consider in
producing quality welds.
The arc length, or distance between the
electrode and molten metal, should be equal to
the diameter of the bare end of the welding rod
or electrode.
It is necessary to maintain a correct arc length
throughout the entire welding process to produce
high-quality welds.
Excessive spattering and porosity will be
eliminated if a proper arc length is maintained.
66

ARC LENGTH

67

ARC BLOW
Arc blow is the, usually unwanted,

deflection of the arc from its normal

path because of magnetic forces
during arc welding.
Arc blow is caused by the electromagnetic (Lorentz) force as a result of
the interaction between the electric
current itself and the magnetic field it
induces.
68

ARC BLOW
Current
passing
through a conductor
sets up a magnetic
field,
rep-resented
by
planes
of
concentric
circles
known as flux lines.
69

ARC BLOW
It

is

mainly encountered with DC

welding of magnetic materials, such as
steel, iron, and nickel, but can also be
encountered when welding nonmagnetic
materials.
It will usually
cause a bad appearance to the weld,
cause excessive spatter, and
can also degrade the quality of the weld.
70

a. BACKWARD BLOW
Back blow occurs when welding is done

toward the workpiece connection,

at the end of a joint or
into a corner.

Back blow is indicated by

spatter;
undercut, either continuous or intermittent;
a narrow, high bead, usually with undercut;
an increase in penetration; or
surface porosity at the finish end of welds on
sheet metal.
71

a. BACKWARD BLOW

Flux
concentratio
n

Flux concentration ahead of the arc at

the end of the joint forces the arc
backward.

72

b. FORWARD BLOW

Forward blow occurs when welding is

done
away from the workpiece connection, or
at the starting end of the joint.

Forward blow is indicated by

a wide bead, irregular in width;

a wavy bead;
undercut, usually intermittent; or
a decrease in penetration.
73

b. FORWARD BLOW

Flux
concentratio
n

Flux concentration ahead of the arc at

the end of the joint forces the arc
backward.

74

ARC BLOW- example

Here, arc blow is caused by the welding

current
returning
to
the
workpiece
connection. The resulting magnetic flux
combines with the flux around the
electrode, causing a high-flux concentration
75

Preventing ARC BLOW

1. Change to AC welding, because of
the continuous change in the polarity,
the effect of magnetic field is nullified,
2. Reduce the current used so that the
strength of the magnetic field gets
reduced,
3. Use a short arc length so that the
filler metal would not be deflected but
carried easily to the arc crater,
76

Preventing ARC BLOW

4. Put steel blocks near the end of
the plate in contact with the base
metal so that the magnetic flux lines
would flow through them and reduce
the arc blow, and
5. Place more than one ground lead
from the base metal (preferably one
each from the ends of the base metal
plate as in Fig).
77

Ground

Ground

Ground

78

Preventing ARC BLOW

6. Angle the electrode with the work
opposite to the direction of arc blow.

79

1. Arc Welding- TYPES

A. Shielded/Manual Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)(MMAW)
B. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
C. Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding
(TIG, GTAW)
D. Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG,
GMAW)

80