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Digital to Analog Converters

Topics Discussed

What is a DAC?
Choosing a DAC
Resistor String DAC
Weighted Resistor DAC
R-2R DAC
PWM
DAC associated errors
Applications
Conclusion

What is a DAC

A digital to analog
converter (DAC) is a
device that converts
digital numbers (binary)
into an analog voltage or
current output.

Choosing a DAC
There are six main parameters that should be considered when
choosing a DAC for a particular project.

Reference Voltage
Resolution
Linearity
Speed
Settling time
Error

Choosing a DAC
Reference Voltage
To a large extent the output properties of a DAC are
determined by the reference voltage.
Multiplier DAC The reference voltage is constant and is set by
the manufacturer.
Non-Multiplier DAC The reference voltage can be changed
during operation.

Choosing a DAC
Resolution
The resolution is the amount of voltage rise created by increasing
the LSB of the input by 1. This voltage value is a function of the
number of input bits and the reference voltage value.
- Increasing the number of bits results in a finer resolution
- Most DACs in the 12-18 bit range

Reference_Voltage
Resolution
2 nbits

Choosing a DAC
Linearity
The linearity is the relationship between the output voltage and the
digital signal input.

Choosing a DAC
Speed
Usually specified as the conversion rate or sampling rate. It is the
rate at which the input register is cycled through in the DAC.

High speed DACs are defined as operating at greater than 1


millisecond per sample (1MHz).
Some state of the art 12-16 bit DAC can reach speeds of 1GHz
The conversion of the digital input signal is limited by the clock
speed of the input signal and the settling time of the DAC.

Choosing a DAC
Settling Time
Ideally a DAC would instantaneously change its output value when
the digital input would change. However, in a real DAC it takes
time for the DAC to reach the actual expected output value.

Choosing a DAC
Error
There are multiple sources of error in computing the analog
output.

Example of a DAC - AD7224

An example of a DAC would be the Analog


Devices AD 7224 D/A Converter. The AD7224
is a precision 8-bit, voltage-output, digital-toanalog converter with an output amplifier.

Specifications:
DAC Type R-2R Voltage Out
Input Dual 8 Bit
Reference voltage Non-Multiplier
2v 12.5v
Settling Time - 7s
Cost - Under $4.00

Example of a DAC - AD7224

Types of DAC Circuits

1. Resistor String
2. N-Bit Binary Weighted Resistor
3. R-2R Ladder
4. PWM DAC

Resistor String DAC

3 Bit Resistor String


DAC
Components of a String DAC
Resistor String
Selection Switches
Opamp

Resistor String DAC

How many internal components would be needed to


create an 8 bit resistor string DAC?
Number of Resistors =

2 n 28 256
n 1

Number of Switches =

2i 28 1 255

i 0

Impractical for a DAC with more than a couple bits


input.

Weighted Resistor DAC


Basic Idea:
Use a summing
op-amp circuit
Use transistors to
switch between
high and ground
Use resistors
scaled by two to
divide voltage on
each branch by a
power of two

Vref
R
R/2

2R
4R
+
2nR

Vout

Weighted Resistor Example


V1 V2 V3 V4

...
R 2 R 4 R 8R

Summing op-Amp: Vout R f

Vref = -2V
Digital word = 1010
V1 = -2V
V2 = 0V
V3 = -2V
V4 = 0V
Rf = R/2
Vout

Vref

V1

V2

2R

V3

4R

Rf

1 2 0 2 0

1.25V

2 1 2 4 8

+
V4

8R

Vout

Weighted Resistor Summary

Advantages

Disadvantages

Simple
Fast
Need large range of resistor values (2000:1 for 12bit) with high precision in low resistor values
Need very small switch resistances

Summary

Use in fast, low-precision converter

R-2R DAC
Basic Idea:
Use only 2 resistor values
Use equal resistances in parallel to halve the resistance
Creates a series of voltage dividers cutting voltages in half
Another summing op-amp

R-2R Example
Digital word = 001
V0 has two 2R resistances in parallel connected to ground
Equivalent of R between V0 and ground
V1 now has a resistance R to V0 and R to ground
V0 = V1/2
V1 has two 2R resistances to ground
Equivalent of R between V1 and ground
V2 now has a resistance R to V1 and R to ground
V1 = V2/2
V2 = Vref
V0 = V2/4
V0 = Vref/4
Vout = -V0/2
Vout = -Vref/8

R-2R Summary

Advantages
Only

2 resistor values

Summary
Better

than weighted resistor DAC

Pulse Width Modulation


Approximate analog signal by switching on/off at high
frequency
Integral of output voltage from PWM ideally is the same
as integral of desired output voltage
N-bit digital words updated at rate f
DAC clock must run at rate 2n*f
Example:
Desired output = 7V, supply voltage = 10V
Operate 10V at 70% duty cycle to approximate 7V
In practice: use counter, comparator, clock, integrator

PWM Summary

Advantages
All

digital
Cheap

Disadvantages
High

sampling rate required


Sensitive to clock variations

Summary
Best

when load is a (relatively) slowly


responding system

Errors

Errors

Gain Error
Offset Error
Full Scale Error
Linearity
Non-Monotonic Output Error
Settling Time and Overshoot
Resolution

Gain Error

Slope deviation
from ideal gain
Low Gain Error:
Step Amplitude is
less than ideal
High Gain Error:
Step Amplitude is
higher than ideal

Offset Error

The voltage is offset from zero when all input


bits are low

Full Scale Error

Combination of gain error and offset error

Non-Linearity

The linearity error is due to the fact


that the resolution of the converter
is not constant.

Non-linearity

The largest
difference between
the actual and
theoretical output
as a percentage of
full-scale output
voltage

Non-linearity

It is the difference
of tension
obtained during
the passage in the
next digital code.

Should be 1 LSB in theory.

Non-monotonic Output Error

A form of nonlinearity due to


errors in individual
bits of the input

Settling Time and Overshoot

Changes in input are not reflected


immediately in the output
Lag times result

Resolution Errors

Inherent errors associated with the


resolution
More

Bits = Less Error and Greater


Resolution
Less Bits = More Error and Less
Resolution

Applications

Programmable gain OpAmps

Voltage controlled Amplifier (digital


input, Vref as control)

Digitally operated attenuators (Vref


as input, digital control)

Programmable Filters

Integrate DACs in filters

Variable cutoff frequency


commanded by a digital signal

DAC Applications

Used at the end of a digital processing


chain when analog signals are required
Digital Audio
CD

Players, digital telephones, etc.

Industrial Control Systems


Motor

speed, valves, etc.

Waveform Function Generators


Cruise Control

References

Alciatore, Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement


Systems, McGraw-Hill, 2003
Horowitz and Hill, The Art of Electronics, Cambridge
University Press, 2nd Ed. 1995
http://www.me.gatech.edu/charles.ume/me6405Fall01/Clas
sNotes/DA_fall_01.ppt
http://products.analog.com/products/info.asp?
product=AD7224 Analog Devices AD 7224 DAC General
Overview and Specifications
http://courses.washington.edu/jbcallis/lectures/C464_Lec5_
Sp-02.pdf D/A Converter Fundamentals and Definition Of
Terms
http://www.eecg.toronto.edu/~kphang/ece1371/chap11_sli
des.pdf Data Converter Fundamentals

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