Chapter 4

Arrangement of
Electrons in Atoms

Ernest Rutherfords Model

Discovered

dense
positive center of the
atom- nucleus
Atom is mostly empty
space
Electrons surround the
nucleus called the
nuclear atom model

Development of a
New Atomic Model
What

prevents the negative

electrons from being drawn into the
positive nucleus?

Double

Slit Experiment

Light
The study of light led to the development
of a new atomic model.
Visible light is a kind of electromagnetic
radiation, a form of energy that exhibits
wavelike properties
Electromagnetic radiation includes many
types: gamma rays, x-rays, radio waves
Speed of ALL electromagnetic radiation
(measured in a vacuum):
c = 3.0 x 108 m/s = 3.0 x 1010 cm/s

R O Y

Frequency Increases

Wavelength Longer

B I

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Parts of a wave
Crest

Wavelength
Amplitude

Origin

Trough

Electromagnetic radiation propagates through

space as a wave moving at the speed of light.

Equation:

c =

c = 3.0 x 108 m/s = 3.0 x 1010 cm/s

(lambda) = wavelength, in meters
(nu) = frequency, in hertz (Hz or sec-1)

Wavelength and Frequency

Are inversely proportional / related

As one goes up the other goes down.

Different frequencies of light are different

colors of light.

Spectrum is a range of wavelengths

Low
Energy

High
Energy

Radio Micro Infrared

Ultra- XGamma
waves waves .
violet Rays Rays
Low
High
Frequency
Frequency
Long
Short
Wavelength
Visible Light Wavelength

Use Equation: c =

The Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect is the

emission of electrons from a metal
when light shines on the metal.

Light must have a minimum

frequency to supply threshold
energy to eject an electron.

Photoelectric Effect

Light is a Particle?

Energy is quantized, released in specific

packets called quanta (Max Planck).

Light is a form of energy.

Therefore, light must be quantized (Albert

Einstein)
Photon = smallest piece of quantized light

The energy (E ) of electromagnetic

radiation is directly proportional to the
frequency () of the radiation.
Equation:

E = h

E = Energy, in Joules (kgm2/s2)

(J is the metric unit of energy)

h = Plancks constant (6.626 x 10-34 Js)

= frequency, in hertz (Hz, sec-1)

The Math in Chapter 4

1)

There are 2
equations:

c =
E = h

2)
Know these
including
constants!

Examples
1) What is the wavelength of blue

light with a frequency of 8.3 x

1015 hz?
2) What is the frequency of red
light with a wavelength of 4.2 x
10-5 m?
3) What is the energy of a photon
of each of the above?

Continuous Spectrum
White

light is
made up of all
the colors of the
visible
spectrum.

Atomic Spectrum
By heating a gas
with electricity we
can get it to give off
colors.
Each element gives
off its own
characteristic colors.
Can be used to
identify the atom.

These are called

the atomic
emission
spectrum
Unique to each
element, like
fingerprints!
Very useful for
identifying
elements

Hydrogens Line-Emission
Spectrum

Explanation of atomic spectra

The

lowest energy level where an

electron starts from, is called the
ground state.

Ground State
Hydrogen

atom with one electron in

the lowest first energy level.

Changing the energy

Heat, electricity, or light can move the

electron up to different energy levels.
The electron is now said to be excited

Changing the energy

As the electron falls back to the ground

state, it gives the energy back as light

Quantum Leap Lab

Changing the energy

They may fall down in specific steps
Each step has different discrete energy

{
{

Ultraviolet
The

Visible

Infrared

further they fall, the more energy

is released and the higher the
frequency.
Each line is one exact frequency of
light emitted.
Each line corresponds to a specific,
discrete amount of energy emitted.

Conclusions from atomic

emission spectra
Since

only specific frequencies of light are emitted,

energy differences between energy states are fixed.

Electrons

levels.

exist only in very specific, discrete energy

Photon Emission and

Absorption

Niels Bohrs Model

Electrons

travel in orbits around the

nucleus called the planetary
model.
Orbits are at different levels

separated by an amount of fixed

energy from another.

The Bohr Model of the Atom

I pictured the
electrons orbiting
the nucleus much
like planets
orbiting the sun.

Niels Bohr

However, electrons
are found in
specific circular
paths around the
nucleus, and can
jump from one
level to another.

Bohrs model
Energy

level of an electron
analogous to the rungs of a ladder
The electron cannot exist between
energy levels, just like you cant
stand between rungs on a ladder
A quantum is the amount of energy
required to move an electron from
one energy level to another

What is light?

Light is a particle - it comes in chunks.

Light is a wave - we can measure its
wavelength and it behaves as a wave
If we combine E=mc2 , c=, E = 1/2 mv2
and E = hthen we can get:

= h/mv (where m is mass

and v is velocity)

called de Broglies equation

Calculates the wavelength of any moving
particle.

Wave-Particle Duality
J.J. Thomson won the Nobel prize for describing the
electron as a particle.
His son, George Thomson won the Nobel prize for
describing the wave-like nature of the electron.
The
electron is
a particle!

The electron
is an energy
wave!

The physics of the very small

Quantum

mechanics explains how

very small particles behave
Quantum mechanics explains
subatomic particles and atoms as
waves

Classical

mechanics describes the

motions of bodies much larger than
atoms

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

One cannot simultaneously
determine both the position
and momentum of an
electron.

Werner Heisenberg

You can find out where the

electron is, but not where it is
going.
OR
You can find out where the
electron is going, but not where
it is!

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

True

in quantum mechanics, but not

in classical mechanics
To measure where a electron is, we
use light.
But the light energy moves the
electron
And hitting the electron changes the
frequency of the light.

Before
Photon

Moving
Electron

After
Photon
wavelength
changes

Electron
velocity changes

Quantum Mechanical Model

In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger derived a

mathematical model that describes the
energy and location of the electrons in a H
atom.


d
h
8

V
m
x
22

Schrodingers Wave Equation

Erwin
Erwin Schrodinger
Schrodinger

Equation describes the

mathematical probability
of finding a single electron
along a single axis (xaxis).

The Quantum Mechanical

Model
The

nucleus is
found inside a
blurry electron
cloud
An area where
there is a 90%
chance of finding
an electron.
Think of fan blades

The Quantum Mechanical

Model
Has energy levels for electrons.
Has orbitals (not circular orbits)
Since based on probability boundary
of atom is not well defined.

Quantum Numbers
Quantum numbers describe atomic orbitals
and the location of electrons
Four quantum numbers:
1.Principal quantum number
2.Angular momentum quantum number
3.Magnetic quantum number
4.Spin quantum number

Quantum Numbers cont.

1. Principal quantum number (n)
Main energy level occupied by the electron;
indicates distance from nucleus
Possible values: 1 to
2. Angular momentum quantum number
(l)
Shape of the orbital
Possible values: 0 to (n-1)

Quantum Numbers cont.

3. Magnetic quantum number (ml)
Orientation of an orbital around the nucleus
Possible values: - l to 0 to l
4. Spin quantum number (ms)
Spin state of an electron in an orbital
Possible values: (+1/2 , 1/2)

Principal Quantum Number

Generally symbolized by n, it denotes
the shell (energy level) in which the
electron is located.
Maximum number
of electrons in a
principal energy
level is:

2n2
How many e- in level 2? 3?

Atomic Orbitals
Principal Quantum Number (n) = the
energy level of the electron: 1, 2, 3, etc.
As n increases, the average distance
from the nucleus increases.
Sublevels are within each energy level.
Number of sublevels equals n.
Orbitals type of sublevel. Shape of
orbital is based on probability: s
(sphere), p (dumbbell), d (cloverleaf), f
(complex)

Shapes of s, p, and d Orbitals

Electrons Accommodated in
Energy Levels and Sublevels

Electrons Accommodated in
Energy Levels and Sublevels

Quantum Numbers: First 30 Atomic

Orbitals

# of
shapes
(orbitals)

Summary
Maximum
electrons

Starts at
energy level

6
10

14

By Energy Level
First Energy Level
Has only s orbital
only 2 e

1s2

Second Energy
Level
Has s and p
orbitals available
2 e- in s, 6 e- in p

2s22p6
8 total electrons

By Energy Level
Third energy level
Has s, p, and d
orbitals
2 e- in s, 6 e- in p,
and 10 e- in d

Fourth energy level

Has s, p, d, and f
orbitals
2 e- in s, 6 e- in p,
10 e- in d, and 14
e- in f

3s23p63d10
18 total electrons

4s24p64d104f14
32 total electrons

By Energy Level
Any

more than
the fourth and not
all the orbitals will
fill up.
You simply run
out of electrons

The orbitals do not

fill up in a neat order
because the energy
levels overlap at
higher n.
Lowest energy level
always fill first.

Increasing energy

7s
6s
5s
4s
3s
2s
1s

7p
6p
5p
4p

6d
5d
4d

5f
4f

3d

3p
2p Section 4.3 Electron
Configuration
Aufbau Diagram p. 111
Aufbau is German for building up

Electron Configurations
Arrangement of electrons in
various orbitals around the nuclei
of atoms.
Three rules to follow:
1) Aufbau principle - electrons enter
the lowest energy first.
Orbitals within sublevels are
equal energy.

Relative Energies of Orbitals

Pauli Exclusion Principle

2) Pauli Exclusion Principle - at

most 2 electrons per orbital

must have different spins

Pauli Exclusion Principle

No two electrons in an
atom can have the same
four quantum numbers.

Wolfgang Pauli

To show the different

direction of spin, a pair
in the same orbital is
written as:

Electron Configurations
3) Hunds Rule- When electrons

occupy orbitals of equal energy,

they dont pair up until they have
to.
Lets write the electron
configuration for Phosphorus
We need to account for all 15
electrons in phosphorus

Increasing energy

7s
6s
5s
4s
3s
2s
1s

7p
6p

6d
5d

5p

4d

4p
3p

5f
4f

3d

The first two electrons

go into the 1s orbital
2p
Notice the opposite
direction of the spins
only 13 more to go...

Increasing energy

7s
6s
5s
4s
3s
2s
1s

7p
6p

6d
5d

5p

4d

4p

5f
4f

3d

3p
2p

The next electrons

go into the 2s orbital
only 11 more...

Increasing energy

7s
6s
5s
4s
3s
2s

7p
6p

6d
5d

5p

4d

4p

4f

3d

3p
2p

1s

5f

The next electrons

go into the 2p orbital
only 5 more...

Increasing energy

7s
6s
5s
4s
3s
2s

7p
6p

6d
5d

5p

4d

4p

4f

3d

3p
2p

1s

5f

The next electrons

go into the 3s orbital
only 3 more...

Increasing energy

7s
6s
5s
4s
3s
2s

7p
6p

6d
5d

5p

4d

4p
3p

3d

2p

1s

Orbital
notation

5f
4f

The last three electrons

go into the 3p orbitals.
They each go into
separate orbitals (Hunds)
3 unpaired electrons
= 1s22s22p63s23p3

Orbitals fill in an order

Lowest

energy to higher energy.

Adding electrons can change the
energy of the orbital. Full orbitals
are the absolute best situation.
However, half filled orbitals have
a lower energy, and are next best
Decreases electron repulsion.
Changes the filling order

Write the electron configurations

for these elements:
Titanium

- 22 electrons

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d2
Vanadium

- 23 electrons

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d3
Chromium

- 24 electrons
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d4 (expected)
But this is not what happens!!

Chromium is actually:
1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5
Why?
This

gives us two half filled

orbitals (the others are all still full)
Half full is slightly lower in energy.
The same principal applies to
copper.

Coppers electron
configuration
Copper

has 29 electrons so we
expect: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d9
But the actual configuration is:
1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10
This change gives one more filled
orbital and one that is half filled.
Remember

these exceptions: d4,

d9

Irregular configurations of Cr and Cu

Chromium steals a 4s electron to
make its 3d sublevel HALF FULL
Copper steals a 4s electron
to FILL its 3d sublevel

Sample Problem A

a. Write both the complete electron-configuration

notation and the noble-gas notation for iron, Fe.

b. How many electron-containing orbitals are in

an atom of iron? How many of these orbitals are
completely filled? How many unpaired electrons
are there in an atom of iron? In which sublevel
are the unpaired electrons located?

Sample Problem A Solution

a. The complete electron-configuration notation of iron

is 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2. Irons noble-gas notation is
[Ar]3d64s2.

b. An iron atom has 15 orbitals that contain electrons.

They consist of one 1s orbital, one 2s orbital, three
2p orbitals, one 3s orbital, three 3p orbitals, five 3d
orbitals, and one 4s orbital.
Eleven of these orbitals are filled, and there are four
unpaired electrons.
They are located in the 3d sublevel.
The notation 3d6 represents 3d

Sample Problem B

a. Write both the complete electronconfiguration notation and the noblegas notation for a rubidium atom.

b. Identify the elements in the second,

third, and fourth periods that have the
same number of highest-energy-level
electrons as rubidium.

Sample Problem B Solution

a. 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p65s1, [Kr]5s1

b. Rubidium has one electron in its highest

energy level (the fifth). The elements with the
same outermost configuration are,
in the second period, lithium, Li;
in the third period, sodium, Na;
and in the fourth period, potassium, K.