Chapter 10 :SOLIDS, LIQUIDS and GASES

Characterist
ics of the th
ree states o
f matter

 The shape of a crystal mirrors the geometric

arrangement of atoms within the crystal.

SOLIDS

Minerals such as quartz, mica, or galena have many

smooth, flat surfaces at angles to one another.
The minerals are made of crystals, or regular geometric
shapes whose components are arranged in an orderly, repe
ating pattern.
The mineral samples themselves may have very irregular
shapes, as if they were small units stuck together.

In this model of
a sodium chlorid
e crystal, the lar
ge spheres repre
sent chloride ion
s, and the small
ones represent s
odium ions

 Density is a measure of how much matter occupies a

given space; it is the amount of mass per unit volume
: Density = Mass / Volume

DENSITY
The density of a material depends upon the masses
of the individual atoms that make it up, and the spaci
ng between those atoms.

DENSITY OF
SOME
SUBSTANCES

 A bodys elasticity describes how much it changes

shape when a deforming force acts on it, and how wel
l it returns to its original shape when the deforming fo
rce is removed.
A material that returns to its original shape after it
has been stretched or compressed is said to be elasti
c.

ELASTICITY

Materials that do not resume their original shape after

being distorted are said to be inelastic.
According to Hookes law, the amount of stretch (or
compression), x , is directly proportional to the applie
d force F provided the limit of elasticity is not exceed
ed. F ~ x

 A horizontal beam supported at one or both ends is under

stress from the load it supports, including its own weight. It u
ndergoes a stress of both compression and tension (stretchin
g).

COMPRESSI
ON AND TE
NSION
Stress is defined as the force per unit area: F/A
The stress results in a change in the shape of the solid,
called the strain: change in length/ original length

 The cross section of many steel girders has the form of the capital
letter I.
Most of the material in these I-beams is concentrated in the top
and bottom parts, called the flanges .
The piece joining the bars, called the web , is thinner.

I-BEAMS

An I-beam is like a solid bar with some of the steel scooped from
its middle where it is needed least. The beam is therefore lighter f
or nearly the same strength.
The stress is predominantly in the top and bottom flanges when
the beam is used horizontally in construction.
One flange is stretched while the other is compressed. The web is
a region of low stress that holds the top and bottom flanges apart.
Heavier loads are supported by farther-apart flanges.

 When linear dimensions are enlarged, the crosssectional area (as well as the total surface area) grow
s as the square of the enlargement, whereas volume
and weight grow as the cube of the enlargement. As t
he linear size of an object increases, the volume grow
s faster than the total surface area.

SCALING

 The pressure of a liquid at rest depends only on

gravity and the density and depth of the liquid.

LIQUIDS
PRESSURE

 How much a liquid weighs, and thus how much

pressure it exerts, depends on its density.
For the same depth, a denser liquid exerts more
pressure.

DENSITY

 For any given liquid, the pressure on the bottom of the container
will be greater if the liquid is deeper.
The pressure of a liquid at rest does not depend on the shape of
the container or the size of its bottom surface.
The pressure created by a liquid is:

DEPTH

Pressure due to liquid = density g depth

a. The liquid in the first container is twice as deep, so the pressure on

the bottom is twice that in the second container.
b. Two blocks exert twice as much pressure on the table.

 The pressure of a liquid does not depend on the amount of liquid.

Neither the volume nor even the total weight of liquid matters. Th
e pressure of the liquid is the same at any given depth below the
surface, regardless of the shape of the container.

VOLUME

a. The forces
against a surface ad
d up to a net force t
hat is perpendicular
to the surface.

b. Liquid escaping
through a hole initial
ly moves
perpendicular to the
surface.

 When the weight of a submerged object is greater than the

buoyant force, the object will sink.
When the weight is less than the buoyant force, the object will
rise to the surface and float.
Buoyancy is the apparent loss of weight of objects when
submerged in a liquid.

BUOYANCY

The upward forces against the bottom of a submerged object

are greater than the downward forces against the top. There is
a net upward force, the buoyant force.

 To determine the volume of an irregularly shaped

object, submerge it in water in a measuring cup. Note
the apparent increase in volume of the water. The inc
rease is equal to the volume of the submerged object.
When an object is submerged in a container that is ini
tially full, the volume of water overflowing is equal to
the volume of the object.

 Archimedes Principle Archimedes principle states that

the buoyant force on an immersed object is equal to the
weight of the fluid it displaces.

ARCHIMEDE
S PRINCIPL
E

Archimedes principle describes the relationship between

buoyancy and displaced liquid. It was discovered in ancie
nt times by the Greek philosopher Archimedes (third cent
ury B.C.). Archimedes principle is true for liquids and gas
es, which are both fluids. A liter of water occupies 1000 c
ubic centimeters, has a mass of 1 kilogram, and weighs 1
0 N. Any object with a volume of 1 liter will experience a b
uoyant force of 10 N when fully submerged in water.

1.

Sinking &
Floatation

An object denser than the fluid in which it is

immersed sinks.

2. An object less dense than the fluid in which it is

immersed floats.
3. An object with density equal to the density of the
fluid in which it is immersed neither sinks nor floats.

 The principle of flotation states that a the weight of a

floating object equals the weight of the fluid displaced

Flotation

 Pascals principle states that changes in pressure at

any point in an enclosed fluid at rest are transmitted
undiminished to all points in the fluid and act in all dir
ections

Pascals
Principle

It describes how changes in a pressure are

transmitted in a fluid

 Earths atmosphere consists of molecules that occupy

space and extends many kilometers above the
Earths surface

The
Atmosphere

As you go higher, the air becomes thinner. (Density

decreases)

Atmospheri
c Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of air

Atmospheric pressure = atm
1 atm = 101.3 kPa

 Barometer- an instrument used for measuring the

pressure of the atmosphere

Barometer

Aneroid Barometer- an instrument that measures

variations in atmospheric pressure without a liquid
Altimeter- an aneroid barometer made for altitude

 Boyles law states that the product of pressure and

volume for a given mass of gas is a constant as long a
s the temperature does not change

Boyles Law

 Any object less dense than the air around it will rise

Buoyancy of
Air

Archimedes principle- states that an object

surrounded by air is buoyed up by a force equal to th
e weight of the air displaced

Bernoullis
Principle

Bernoullis Principle in its simplest form states that

when the speed of a fluid increases, pressure in the fl
uid decreases

Relationship
between
Fluid Pressu
re and Spee
d

When the speed of a fluid increases, its pressure

decreases

 When lift equals weight, horizontal flight is possible.

Applications
of
Bernoullis P
rinciple

Try blowing air across the top of a sheet of paper. The

paper rises because air passes faster over the top of
the sheet than below it. The paper rises when you blo
w air across the top of it.

 The speed of air above the wing increases and makes

the pressure above the wing to decrease. As a result,
the higher pressure below the wing causes lift.

Lift