NDT Teory

MATERIALS AND WELDING
BVN TM MW1 Non-Destructive Testing

Head Office Department Technology Equipment - V0 January 2009
CONTENT
1 - General principles
2- Visual testing
3- Liquid penetrant testing
4- Magnetic particle testing
5- Radiographic testing
6- Ultrasonics testing
1 - General principles
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING General principles

Non-Destructive Testing
The field of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a very broad, interdisciplinary

field that plays a critical role in verifying that structural components and
systems are built in compliance with the applicable standards.
NDT technicians and engineers define and implement tests that can detect
and eventually locate and size material imperfections.
These tests are performed in a manner that does not affect the future
usefulness of the object or material. In other words, NDT allows parts and
materials to be tested without damaging them.
NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and costeffectiveness. Generally speaking, NDT applies to industrial inspections.
Technologies used in NDT are similar on the principles to those used in the
medical field.
NDT is a matter of qualified specialists. Surveyors are not these

specialists but are to be able to communicate with these specialists.
Bureau Veritas S.A. internal use only Materials and Welding BVN TM MW2 V0 January 2009
NDT Methods
The number of NDT methods that can be used to inspect components and
make measurements is large and continues to grow.
Researchers continue to find new ways of applying physics and other
scientific disciplines to develop NDT methods. However, there are six
common NDT methods that are used widely in industry.
These methods are :
Surface method such as visual inspection, liquid penetrant testing,
magnetic particle testing, electromagnetic or eddy current testing,
Volumetric method such as radiography, and ultrasonic testing.
Each method is limited by its physical principles and may be complemented

by an other method

QUALIFICATION OF PERSONNEL INVOLVED IN NDT

QUALIFICATION OF PERSONNEL INVOLVED IN NDT
Operators are generally to be qualified according to a nationally recognised

scheme with a grade equivalent to level II qualification of ISO 9712, EN473 or
SNT-TC-1A
Personnel responsible for the preparation of NDE procedures should be
qualified to a grade equivalent to level III of the same schemes
Operators qualified to level I may be engaged in the test under the supervision
of personnel qualified to level II or III
Qualification and certification scheme of EN 473 applies to NDE techniques
listed below;
To be noted that visual examination is part of such schemes

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING REQUIREMENTS
Each piece tested
Batch of pieces tested using one piece of the batch
PRODUCT(S)
during/from
manufacturing
process
TESTED AREA
Type of testing
TEST RESULT
Criteria as per
Rules or standard
agreed
Extent of testing

Extent and criteria for Non-Destructive Testing :
According to recognised standard proposed by the manufacturer (EN
standards, ASME, API, JIS etc.)
According to the requirement of the Societys Rules as applicable (piping
systems etc.)
In absence of specific standard proposed by the manufacturer, as a
minimum, following IACS recommendations may be placed at the disposal of
the manufacturer and are acceptable :
IACS Recommendation 68
IACS Recommendation 69
MATERIALS AND TESTING Principles of testing

THE TESTING REQUIREMENTS ARE GIVEN BY THE RULES
APPLICABLE TO EACH TYPE OF PRODUCT
Example of steel castings :
10

11

12

Example of rolled steel plates :
13
2 VISUAL TESTING
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Visual Testing
Most extensively used method which is very practical and
economical.
Examination is conducted on clean surfaces (on finished welds free from

paint).
Equipment used by visual inspector ; Vernier, Gauges, comparator
(typically for casting surface) etc.
Before welding starts; Joint preparation (parent metal condition, edge
preparation, groove angles, root opening, alignment)
During welding; Visible imperfections, cleaning
After welding; Visible imperfections, weld dimensions
15
3 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing
The method is based on the ability of a penetrating liquid (known as penetrant)

to be drawn into a discontinuity. After removal of the excess penetrant, a
developer such as a fine powder is added and the penetrant is drawn out the
discontinuity by capillary action.
Only imperfections which break the surface can be detected
Procedure shall detail the calibration equipment, surface preparation, cleaning

and drying prior to testing, temperature range, type of penetrant, cleaner and
developer used, penetrant application and removal, penetration time, developer
application and development time, lighting conditions during examination and
identification system of welds examined
Red color penetrant and white developer are usually used for welds
examination
17

Liquid Penetrant Testing may detect imperfections not visible with the
unaided eyes
LPT produces an indication that is much larger and easier for the eye to
detect than the physical imperfection itself. Many imperfections are so
small or narrow that they are undetectable by the unaided eyes. Due to the
physical features of the eye, there is a threshold below which objects
cannot be resolved. This threshold of visual acuity is around 0.003 inch for
a person with a perfect vision.
The indication is highly contrasted, typically red dye with white developer
under normal light.
When a fluorescent penetrant testing is performed, the penetrant materials
are formulated to be highly visible under ultraviolet light in darkened area.
18
Red dye with white developer under normal light
19

Red dye with white developer under normal light
20
Fluorescent dye with developer under ultraviolet light
21
Surface Preparation:
One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant inspection is the surface
preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, paint or other
contaminants that may prevent penetrant from entering flaws.
22

Penetrant Application:
Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, the penetrant
material is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in a
penetrant bath.
23
Penetrant Dwell: :
The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as much
penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into an imperfection.
Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with
the part surface. Dwell times are usually recommended by the penetrant
producers or required by the procedure being followed. The times vary
depending on the application, penetrant materials used, the material, the
form of the material being inspected, temperature of part examined, and
the type of defect being inspected for. Minimum dwell times typically range
from 5 to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer
penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry.
24

Excess Penetrant Removal:
This is a delicate part of the technique because the excess penetrant must
be removed from the surface of the sample while not removed from the
imperfection. Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may
involve cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treating the
part with an emulsifier and then rinsing with water.
25

Developer Application:
A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw penetrant

trapped in the physical imperfections back to the surface where it will be
visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that may be applied by
dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet developers)
26
Indication Development:
The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period of time
sufficient to permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of the surface
imperfections. This development time is stated by the procedure (typically a
minimum of 10 minutes).
Inspection:
Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications

that may be present.
Clean Surface:
The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surface to
remove the developer from the parts that were found to be acceptable.
27
Common Uses of Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Liquid penetrant inspection (PT) is one of the most widely used

nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed
to two main factors: its relative ease of use and its flexibility. PT can be
used to inspect almost any material provided that its surface is not
extremely rough or porous.
As mentioned above, one of the major limitations of liquid penetrant testing
is that imperfections must be opened to the surface.
28
Primary Advantages
The method has high sensitivity to small surface discontinuities.

The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic,
magnetic and nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials
may be tested.
Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be tested rapidly and
at low cost.
Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely tested.
Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a
visual representation of the indication.
Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
29
Primary Disadvantages
Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
Precleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be
removed prior to LPI.
The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
30
4 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Magnetic Particle Testing
The material is magnetized using an electromagnetic magnet (Yoke method) or
using the magnetic field produced from an electric current (Prods method)
If the magnetized material is cracked, a local magnetic field is created across
the gap (flux leakage). This local field can attract magnetic particle either in a dry
powder or in a liquid suspension.
Imperfections which break the surface and subsurface imperfections can be
detected
Procedure shall detail the surface preparation, magnetizing equipment,
calibration methods, detection media and application, viewing conditions and
identification system of welds examined
32

Basic Principal:
In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MT) is a relatively simple concept. It

can be considered as a combination of two nondestructive testing methods:
magnetic flux leakage testing and visual testing. Consider the case of a bar
magnet. It has a magnetic field in and around the magnet. Any place that a
magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is called a pole. A pole
where a magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole and a
pole where a line of force enters the magnet is called a south pole.
33

Basic Principal:
The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the

component that is to be inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are
present, the defects will create a leakage field. After the component has
been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet suspended form, are
applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles will be attracted
and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication that
the inspector can detect.
34

Magnetic Field Characteristics
Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet

A magnetic field is a change in energy within a volume of space. The
magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet can be seen in the
magnetograph below. A magnetograph can be created by placing a
piece of paper over a magnet and sprinkling the paper with iron filings.
The particles align themselves with the lines of magnetic force
produced by the magnet. The magnetic lines of force show where the
magnetic field exits the material at one pole and reenters the material
at another pole along the length of the magnet.
It can be seen in the magnetograph that there are poles all along the
length of the magnet but that the poles are concentrated at the ends of
the magnet. The area where the exit poles are concentrated is called
the magnet's north pole and the area where the entrance poles are
concentrated is called the magnet's south pole.
35

Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets

Magnets come in a variety of shapes and one of the more common is
the horseshoe (U) magnet. The horseshoe magnet has north and south
poles just like a bar magnet but the magnet is curved so the poles lie in
the same plane. The magnetic lines of force flow from pole to pole just
like in the bar magnet. However, since the poles are located closer
together and a more direct path exists for the lines of flux to travel
between the poles, the magnetic field is concentrated between the
poles.
36

Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets

If a bar magnet was placed across the end of a horseshoe magnet or if
a magnet was formed in the shape of a ring, the lines of magnetic force
would not even need to enter the air. The value of such a magnet
where the magnetic field is completely contained with the material
probably has limited use. However, it is important to understand that
the magnetic field can flow in loop within a material.
37

Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw
Detectability
To properly inspect a component for imperfections,

it is important to understand that the orientation
between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is
very important. There are two general types of
magnetic fields that can be established within a
component.
A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of
force that run parallel to the long axis of the part.
Longitudinal magnetization of a component can be
accomplished using the longitudinal field set up by
a coil or solenoid. It can also be accomplished
using permanent magnets or electromagnets.
A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of
force that run circumferentially around the
perimeter of a part. A circular magnetic field is
induced in an article by either passing current
through the component or by passing current
through a conductor surrounded by the
component.
38

Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability
The type of magnetic field established is determined by the method used

to magnetize the specimen. Being able to magnetize the part in two
directions is important because the best detection of imperfections occurs
when the lines of magnetic force are established at right angles to the
longest dimension of the defect. This orientation creates the largest
disruption of the magnetic field within the part and the greatest flux
leakage at the surface of the part. As can be seen in the image below, if
the magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the field will see little disruption
and no flux leakage field will be produced..
39

Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability
An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the

defect is necessary to form an indication. Since defects may occur in
various and unknown directions, each part is normally magnetized in two
directions at right angles to each other. If the component below is
considered, it is known that passing current through the part from end to
end will establish a circular magnetic field that will be 90 degrees to the
direction of the current. Therefore, defects that have a significant
dimension in the direction of the current (longitudinal defects) should be
detectable. Alternately, transverse-type defects will not be detectable with
circular magnetization. ..
40

Magnetization Using Direct Induction (Direct Magnetization)
With direct magnetization, current is passed directly through the

component. Recall that whenever current flows, a magnetic field is
produced. Using the right-hand rule, which was introduced earlier, it is
known that the magnetic lines of flux form normal to the direction of the
current and form a circular field in and around the conductor. When using
the direct magnetization method, care must be taken to ensure that good
electrical contact is established and maintained between the test equipment
and the test component. Improper contact can result in arcing that may
damage the component. It is also possible to overheat components in
areas of high resistance such as the contact points and in areas of small
cross-sectional area.
41

Magnetization Using Indirect Induction (Indirect Magnetization)
Indirect magnetization is accomplished by using a strong external magnetic

field to establish a magnetic field within the component. As with direct
magnetization, there are several ways that indirect magnetization can be
accomplished.
The use of permanent magnets is a low cost method of establishing a
magnetic field. However, their use is limited due to lack of control of the
field strength and the difficulty of placing and removing strong permanent
magnets from the component.
42

Magnetization Using Indirect Induction
(Indirect Magnetization)
Electromagnets in the form of an adjustable

horseshoe magnet (called a yoke) eliminate
the problems associated with permanent
magnets and are used extensively in industry.
Electromagnets only exhibit a magnetic flux
when electric current is flowing around the soft
iron core. When the magnet is placed on the
component, a magnetic field is established
between the north and south poles of the
magnet.
The use of coils and solenoids is a third

method of indirect magnetization. When the
length of a component is several times larger
than its diameter, a longitudinal magnetic field
can be established in the component. The
component is placed longitudinally in the
concentrated magnetic field that fills the center
of a coil or solenoid. This magnetization
technique is often referred to as a "coil shot.".
43
Magnetic Particle Examination Two directions check
To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to become

familiar with the different types of magnetic fields and the equipment used to
generate them. As discussed previously, one of the primary requirements for
detecting a defect in a ferromagnetic material is that the magnetic field
induced in the part must intercept the defect at a 45 to 90 degree angle. Flaws
that are normal (90 degrees) to the magnetic field will produce the strongest
indications because they disrupt more of the magnet flux.
Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is important to be able to
establish a magnetic field in at least two directions. A variety of equipment
exists to establish the magnetic field for MPI. One way to classify equipment is
based on its portability. Some equipment is designed to be portable so that
inspections can be made in the field and some is designed to be stationary for
ease of inspection in the laboratory or manufacturing facility. Portable
equipment will be discussed first.
44

Portable Magnetizing Equipment for Magnetic Particle Examination
Electromagnets
Today, most of the equipment used to create the magnetic field used in MT is
based on electromagnetism. That is, using an electrical current to produce the
magnetic field. An electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipment
that is used to establish a magnetic field. It is basically made by wrapping an
electrical coil around a piece of soft ferromagnetic steel. A switch is included in
the electrical circuit so that the current and, therefore, the magnetic field can
be turned on and off. They can be powered with alternating current from a wall
socket or by direct current from a battery pack. This type of magnet generates
a very strong magnetic field in a local area where the poles of the magnet
touch the part being inspected. Some yokes can lift weights in excess of 40
pounds..
45

Lights for Magnetic Particle Examination
Magnetic particle inspection can be performed using particles that are highly
visible under white light conditions or particles that are highly visible under
ultraviolet light conditions. When an inspection is being performed using the
visible color contrast particles, no special lighting is required as long as the
area of inspection is well lit. A light intensity of at least 1000 lux is
recommended when visible particles are used, but a variety of light sources
can be used.
When fluorescent particles are used, special ultraviolet light must be used.
Fluorescence is defined as the property of emitting radiation as a result of and
during exposure to radiation. Particles used in fluorescent magnetic particle
inspections are coated with a material that produces light in the visible
spectrum when exposed to near-ultraviolet light. This "particle glow" provides
high contrast indications on the component anywhere particles collect.
Particles that fluoresce yellow-green are most common because this color
matches the peak sensitivity of the human eye under dark conditions.
However, particles that fluoresce red, blue, yellow, and green colors are
available.
46

Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light or "black light" is light in the 1,000 to 4,000 Angstroms (100 to
400nm) wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Spot lights, on the other hand, provide concentrated energy that can be
directed to the area of inspection. A spot light will generate a six inch diameter
circle of high intensity light when held fifteen inches from the inspection
surface. One hundred watt mercury vapor lights are most commonly used, but
higher wattages are available
47
Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI)
The Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) or Artificial Flaw Standard is often

the preferred method of assuring proper field direction and adequate field
strength. The use of a QQI is also the only practical way of ensuring
balanced field intensity and direction in multiple-direction magnetization
equipment. QQIs are often used in conjunction with a Gauss meter to
establish the inspection procedure for a particular component. They are
used with the wet method only, and like other flux sharing devices, can only
be used with continuous magnetization.
The QQI is a thin strip of either 0.002 or 0.004 inch thick AISI 1005 steel. A
photoetch process is used to inscribe a specific pattern, such as concentric
circles or a plus sign. QQIs are nominally 3/4 inch square, but miniature
shims are also available. QQIs must be in intimate contact with the part
being evaluated. This is accomplished by placing the shim on a part etched
side down, and taping or gluing it to the surface. The component is then
magnetized and particles applied. When the field strength is adequate, the
particles will adhere over the engraved pattern and provide information
about the field direction. When a multidirectional technique is used, a
balance of the fields is noted when all areas of the QQI produce indications.
48
Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI)
49

Pie Gage
The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable material divided into four, six, or
eight sections by nonferromagnetic material. The divisions serve as artificial
defects that radiate out in different directions from the center. The diameter
of the gage is 3/4 to 1 inch. The divisions between the low carbon steel pie
sections are to be no greater than 1/32 inch. The sections are furnace
brazed and copper plated. The gage is placed on the test piece copper side
up and the test piece is magnetized. After particles are applied and the
excess removed, the indications provide the inspector the orientation of the
magnetic field.
The principal application is on flat surfaces such as weldments or steel
castings where dry powder is used with a yoke or prods. The pie gage is
not recommended for precision parts with complex shapes, for wet-method
applications, or for proving field magnitude. The gage should be
demagnetized between readings.
Several of the main advantages of the pie gage are that it is easy to use
and it can be used indefinitely without deterioration. The pie gage has
several disadvantages, which include: it retains some residual magnetism
so indications will prevail after removal of the source of magnetization, it
can only be used in relatively flat areas, and it cannot be reliably used for
determination of balanced fields in multidirectional magnetization.
50
Pie Gauge
51

The particles that are used for magnetic particle inspection are a key
ingredient as they form the indications that alert the inspector to defects.
Dry Magnetic Particles

Dry magnetic particles can typically be purchased in red, black, gray, yellow and
several other colors so that a high level of contrast between the particles and
the part being inspected can be achieved. The size of the magnetic particles is
also very important. Dry magnetic particle products are produced to include a
range of particle sizes. The fine particles are around 50 mm (0.002 inch) in size,
and are about three times smaller in diameter and more than 20 times lighter
than the coarse particles (150 mm or 0.006 inch). This make them more
sensitive to the leakage fields from very small discontinuities.
However, dry testing particles cannot be made exclusively of the fine particles.
Coarser particles are needed to bridge large discontinuities and to reduce the
powder's dusty nature. Additionally, small particles easily adhere to surface
contamination, such as remnant dirt or moisture, and get trapped in surface
roughness features. It should also be recognized that finer particles will be
more easily blown away by the wind; therefore, windy conditions can reduce the
sensitivity of an inspection. Also, reclaiming the dry particles is not
recommended because the small particles are less likely to be recaptured and
the "once used" mix will result in less sensitive inspections.
52
Wet Magnetic Particles
The wet magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than
the dry because the suspension provides the particles with more mobility
and makes it possible for smaller particles to be used since dust and
adherence to surface contamination is reduced or eliminated. The wet
method also makes it easy to apply the particles uniformly to a relatively
large area.
Wet method magnetic particles products differ from dry powder products in
a number of ways. One way is that both visible and fluorescent particles are
available. Most nonfluorescent particles are ferromagnetic iron oxides,
which are either black or brown in color. Fluorescent particles are coated
with pigments that fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. Particles that
fluoresce green-yellow are most common to take advantage of the peak
color sensitivity of the eye but other fluorescent colors are also available.
The particles used with the wet method are smaller in size than those used
in the dry method for the reasons mentioned above. The particles are
typically 10 m and smaller and the synthetic iron oxides have particle
diameters around 0.1 m.
53
Dry and Wet Magnetic Particles
54
Dry Particle Examination
Dry particle inspection is well suited for the inspections conducted on rough
surfaces. When an electromagnetic yoke is used, the AC or half wave DC
current creates a pulsating magnetic field that provides mobility to the
powder. The primary applications for dry powders are unground welds and
rough as-cast surfaces.
Dry particle inspection is also used to detect shallow subsurface cracks.
Dry particles with half wave DC is the best approach when inspecting for
lack of root penetration in welds of thin materials. Half wave DC with prods
and dry particles is commonly used when inspecting large castings for hot
tears and cracks.
55

Steps in performing an inspection using dry particles
Prepare the part surface - the surface should be relatively clean but this is not as
critical as it is with liquid penetrant inspection. The surface must be free of grease, oil
or other moisture that could keep particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint,
rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity but can sometimes be left in place with
adequate results. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
Apply the magnetizing force - Use permanent magnets, an electromagnetic yoke,
prods, a coil or other means to establish the necessary magnetic flux.
Dust on the dry magnetic particles - Dust on a light layer of magnetic particles.
Gently blow off the excess powder - With the magnetizing force still applied,
remove the excess powder from the surface with a few gentle puffs of dry air. The
force of the air needs to be strong enough to remove the excess particles but not
strong enough to dislodge particles held by a magnetic flux leakage field.
Terminate the magnetizing force - If the magnetic flux is being generated with an
electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force should be
terminated. If permanent magnets are being used, they can be left in place.
Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered.
56
57
Wet Suspension Examination
Wet suspension magnetic particle inspection, more commonly known as

wet magnetic particle inspection, involves applying the particles while they
are suspended in a liquid carrier. Wet magnetic particle inspection is most
commonly performed using a stationary, wet, horizontal inspection unit but
suspensions are also available in spray cans for use with an
electromagnetic yoke.
A wet inspection has several advantages over a dry inspection. First, all of
the surfaces of the component can be quickly and easily covered with a
relatively uniform layer of particles. Second, the liquid carrier provides
mobility to the particles for an extended period of time, which allows
enough particles to float to small leakage fields to form a visible indication.
Therefore, wet inspection is considered best for detecting very small
discontinuities on smooth surfaces. On rough surfaces, however, the
particles (which are much smaller in wet suspensions) can settle in the
surface valleys and lose mobility, rendering them less effective than dry
powders under these conditions.
58

Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions
Prepare the part surface - Just as is required with dry particle inspections,
the surface should be relatively clean. The surface must be free of grease,
oil and other moisture that could prevent the suspension from wetting the
surface and preventing the particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint,
rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity, but can sometimes be left in place
with adequate results. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
Apply the suspension - The suspension is gently sprayed or flowed over
the surface of the part. Usually, the stream of suspension is diverted from
the part just before the magnetizing field is applied.
Apply the magnetizing force - The magnetizing force should be applied
immediately after applying the suspension of magnetic particles. When
using a wet horizontal inspection unit, the current is applied in two or three
short busts (1/2 second) which helps to improve particle mobility.
Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are
clustered. Surface discontinuities will produce a sharp indication. The
indications from subsurface flaws will be less defined and lose definition as
depth increases.
59

Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions
60
Light Requirements When Using Visible Particles
Magnetic particle inspections that use visible particles can be conducted

using natural or artificial lighting. Inspector must constantly stay aware of
the lighting conditions and make adjustments when needed. To improve the
uniformity of lighting from one inspection to the next, the use of artificial
lighting is recommended. Artificial lighting should be white whenever
possible and white flood or halogen lamps are most commonly used. The
light intensity is required to be 100 foot-candles at the surface being
inspected. It is advisable to choose a white light wattage that will provide
sufficient light, but avoid excessive reflected light that could distract from
the inspection.
61
Light Requirements When Using Fluorescent Particles -
Ultraviolet Lighting
When performing a magnetic particle inspection using fluorescent particles,

the condition of the ultraviolet light and the ambient white light must be
monitored. Standards and procedures require verification of lens condition
and light intensity. Black lights should never be used with a cracked filter as
the output of white light and harmful black light will be increased. The
cleanliness of the filter should be checked visually and cleaned as
necessary before warming-up the light.
62
Indication of a crack in a saw blade & Indication of cracks in a
weldment
63
Indication of cracks originating at a fastener hole &
Before and after inspection pictures of cracks emanating from a

hole
64
Cracks in a drive shaft. & Indication of cracks in a bearing
65
Indication of a crack in a in a crane hook & Indication of cracks at
a sharp radius
66
5 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Radiographic Testing
A source of ionizing radiation (X or Gamma) is placed on one side of the
component and a radiographic film, enclosed within a lightproof container, is

placed opposite the source. After a calculated period of time, the source is
removed and the film is chemically processed.
Particularly good at detecting volumetric flaws such as voids, porosity and solid
inclusions
Procedure shall detail the type of radiation source, test arrangement and films
overlapping, type and position of image quality indicators (IQI), image quality, film
system and intensifying screens used if any, exposure conditions, scattered
radiation control, film processing, film density and identification system of welds
examined
68
Nature of Penetrating Radiation
69

X-ray Generators
The major components of an X-ray

generator are the tube, the high voltage
generator, the control console, and the
cooling system. X-rays are generated by
directing a stream of high speed
electrons at a target material such as
tungsten, which has a high atomic
number. When the electrons are slowed
or stopped by the interaction with the
atomic particles of the target, X-radiation
is produced. This is accomplished in an
X-ray tube such as the one shown here.
The X-ray tube is one of the components
of an X-ray generator.
70

Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources
Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an extra

neutron to atoms of the source material. As the material rids itself of
the neutron, energy is released in the form of gamma rays. Two of
the more common industrial gamma-ray sources for industrial
radiography are iridium-192 and cobalt-60. In comparison to an Xray generator, cobalt-60 produces energies comparable to a 1.25
MeV X-ray system and iridium-192 to a 460 keV X-ray system.
These high energies make it possible to penetrate thick materials
with a relatively short exposure time.
This and the fact that sources are very portable are the main
reasons that gamma sources are widely used for field radiography.
Of course, the disadvantage of a radioactive source is that it can
never be turned off and safely managing the source is a constant
responsibility.
Physical size of isotope materials varies between manufacturers, but
generally an isotope material is a pellet that measures 1.5 mm x 1.5
mm. ,
71

The source capsule and the pigtail is housed in a shielding device

referred to as a exposure device or camera. Depleted uranium is
often used as a shielding material for sources. The exposure device
for iridium-192 and cobalt-60 sources will contain 45 pounds and
500 pounds of shielding materials, respectively. Cobalt cameras are
often fixed to a trailer and transported to and from inspection sites.
When the source is not being used to make an exposure, it is locked
inside the exposure device.
72

To make a radiographic exposure, a crank-out mechanism and a guide

tube are attached to opposite ends of the exposure device. The guide tube
often has a collimator at the end to shield the radiation except in the
direction necessary to make the exposure. The crank-out cable is stretched
as far as possible to put as much distance as possible between the
exposure device and the radiographer. To make the exposure, the
radiographer quickly cranks the source out of the exposure device and into
position in the collimator at the end of the guide tube. At the end of the
exposure time, the source is cranked back into the exposure device. There
is a series of safety procedures, which include several radiation surveys,
that must be accomplished when making an exposure with a gamma
source.
73

Geometric Unsharpness
Geometric unsharpness refers to the loss of definition that is the result of

geometric factors of the radiographic equipment and setup. It occurs
because the radiation does not originate from a single point but rather over
an area. Consider the images below which show two sources of different
sizes, the paths of the radiation from each edge of the source to each edge
of the feature of the sample, the locations where this radiation will expose
the film and the density profile across the film. In the first image, the
radiation originates at a very small source. Since all of the radiation
originates from basically the same point, very little geometric unsharpness
is produced in the image. In the second image, the source size is larger
and the different paths that the rays of radiation can take from their point of
origin in the source causes the edges of the notch to be less defined.
74

The three factors controlling unsharpness are source size, source to object
distance, and object to detector distance. The source size is obtained by
referencing manufacturers specifications for a given X-ray or gamma ray
source. Industrial x-ray tubes often have focal spot sizes of 1.5 mm
squared but microfocus systems have spot sizes in the 30 micron range. As
the source size decreases, the geometric unsharpness also decreases. For
a given size source, the unsharpness can also be decreased by increasing
the source to object distance, but this comes with a reduction in radiation
intensity.
75

The object to detector distance is usually kept as small as possible to help

minimize unsharpness. However, there are situations, such as when using
geometric enlargement, when the object is separated from the detector,
which will reduce the definition. The applet below allow the geometric
unsharpness to be visualized as the source size, source to object distance,
and source to detector distance are varied. The area of varying density at
the edge of a feature that results due to geometric factors is called the
penumbra. The penumbra is the gray area seen in the applet.
76

Kilovoltage
X-ray generators come in a large variety of sizes and configurations.

There are stationary units that are intended for use in lab or
production environments and portable systems that can be easily
moved to the job site. Systems are available in a wide range of
energy levels. When inspecting large steel or heavy metal
components, systems capable of producing millions of electron volts
may be necessary to penetrate the full thickness of the material.
Alternately, small, lightweight components may only require a
system capable of producing only a few tens of kilovolts.
Focal Spot Size
Another important consideration is the focal spot size of the tube

since this factors into the geometric unsharpness of the image
produced. Generally, the smaller the spot size the better. But as the
electron stream is focused to a smaller area, the power of the tube
must be reduced to prevent overheating at the tube anode.
Therefore, the focal spot size becomes a tradeoff of resolving
capability and power.
77
Image Considerations
The usual objective in radiography is to

produce an image showing the highest
amount of detail possible. This requires
careful control of a number of different
variables that can affect image
quality. Radiographic sensitivity is a
measure of the quality of an image in terms
of the smallest detail or discontinuity that
may be detected.
Radiographic sensitivity is dependant on the
combined effects of two independent sets of
variables. One set of variables affects the
contrast and the other set of variables
affects the definition of the image.
78
79
Since radiographic contrast and definition are not dependent
upon the same set of factors, it is possible to produce

radiographs with the following qualities:
Low contrast and poor definition
High contrast and poor definition
Low contrast and good definition
High contrast and good definition
80
Radiography Image Quality
Radiographic contrast is the degree of density

difference between two areas on a radiograph.
Contrast makes it easier to distinguish features of
interest, such as defects, from the surrounding area.
The image to the right shows two radiographs of the
same stepwedge. The upper radiograph has a high
level of contrast and the lower radiograph has a
lower level of contrast. While they are both imaging
the same change in thickness, the high contrast
image uses a larger change in radiographic density
to show this change. In each of the two radiographs,
there is a small circle, which is of equal density in
both radiographs. It is much easier to see in the
high contrast radiograph.
81
Radiographic Contrast
Radiographic contrast describes the differences in photographic

density in a radiograph. The contrast between different parts of the
image is what forms the image and the greater the contrast, the more
visible features become. Radiographic contrast has two main
contributors: subject contrast and detector (film) contrast.
82

Subject Contrast
Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities transmitted through

different areas of the component being evaluated. It is dependant on the
absorption differences in the component, the wavelength of the primary
radiation, and intensity and distribution of secondary radiation due to
scattering.
The absorption differences within the subject will affect the level of
contrast in a radiograph. The larger the difference in thickness or density
between two areas of the subject, the larger the difference in radiographic
density or contrast. However, x-rays using a low kilovoltage will generally
result in a radiograph with high contrast. This occurs because low energy
radiation is more easily attenuated. Therefore, the ratio of photons that are
transmitted through a thick and thin area will be greater with low energy
radiation. This in turn will result in the film being exposed to a greater and
lesser degree in the two areas.
83

Film Contrast
Film contrast refers to density differences that result due to the

type of film used, how it was exposed, and how it was
processed. Since there are other detectors besides film, this
could be called detector contrast, but the focus here will be on
film. Exposing a film to produce higher film densities will
generally increase the contrast in the radiograph.
84
Film Contrast
A typical film characteristic curve, which shows how a

film responds to different amounts of radiation
exposure, is shown to the right. From the shape of
the curves, it can be seen that when the film has not
seen many photon interactions (which will result in a
low film density) the slope of the curve is low. In this
region of the curve, it takes a large change in
exposure to produce a small change in film density.
Therefore, the sensitivity of the film is relatively low. It
can be seen that changing the log of the relative
exposure from 0.75 to 1.4 only changes the film
density from 0.20 to about 0.30. However, at film
densities above 2.0, the slope of the characteristic
curve for most films is at its maximum. In this region
of the curve, a relatively small change in exposure
will result in a relatively large change in film density.
For example, changing the log of relative exposure
from 2.4 to 2.6 would change the film density from
1.75 to 2.75. Therefore, the sensitivity of the film is
high in this region of the curve. In general, the
highest overall film density that can be conveniently
viewed or digitized will have the highest level of
contrast and contain the most useful information.
85

Radiography Image Quality
Radiographic definition (Sharpness) is the

abruptness of change in going from one area of a
given radiographic density to another. Like contrast,
definition also makes it easier to see features of
interest, such as defects, but in a totally different way.
In the image to the right, the upper radiograph has a
high level of definition and the lower radiograph has a
lower level of definition. In the high definition
radiograph it can be seen that a change in the
thickness of the stepwedge translates to an abrupt
change in radiographic density. It can be seen that
the details, particularly the small circle, are much
easier to see in the high definition radiograph. It can
be said that the detail portrayed in the radiograph is
equivalent to the physical change present in the
stepwedge. In other words, a faithful visual
reproduction of the stepwedge was produced. In the
lower image, the radiographic setup did not produce
a faithful visual reproduction. The edge line between
the steps is blurred. This is evidenced by the gradual
transition between the high and low density areas on
the radiograph.
86
Definition (Sharpness)
As mentioned previously, radiographic

definition is the abruptness of change from
one density to another. Geometric factors of
the equipment and the radiographic setup,
and film and screen factors both have an
effect on definition. Geometric factors include
the size of the area of origin of the radiation,
the source-to-detector (film) distance, the
specimen-to-detector (film) distance,
movement of the source, specimen or
detector during exposure, the angle between
the source and some feature and the
abruptness of change in specimen thickness
or density.
87

Radiographic definition
Geometric Factors
The effect of source size, source-to-film distance and the specimen-todetector distance were change the radiographic definition. But briefly, to
produce the highest level of definition, the focal-spot or source size should
be as close to a point source as possible, the source-to-detector distance
should be a great as practical, and the specimen-to-detector distance
should be a small as practical. This is shown graphically in the images
below.
88

Radiographic definition
Film and Screen Factors - The last set of factors concern the film and the
use of fluorescent screens.
A fine grain film is capable of producing an image with a higher level of
definition than is a coarse grain film. Wavelength of the radiation will
influence apparent graininess. As the wavelength shortens and penetration
increases, the apparent graininess of the film will increase. Also, increased
development of the film will increase the apparent graininess of the
radiograph.
The use of fluorescent screens also results in lower definition. The reason
that fluorescent screens are sometimes used is because incident radiation
causes them to give off light that helps to expose the film. However, the
light they produce spreads in all directions, exposing the film in adjacent
areas, as well as in the areas which are in direct contact with the incident
radiation. Fluorescent screens also produce screen mottle on radiographs.
Screen mottle is associated with the statistical variation in the numbers of
photons that interact with the screen from one area to the next.
89

Radiographic Density
Photographic, radiographic or film density is a measure of the degree

of film darkening. Technically it should be called "transmitted density"
when associated with transparent-base film since it is a measure of
the light transmitted through the film. Density is a logarithmic unit that
describes a ratio of two measurements. Specifically, it is the log of the
intensity of light incident on the film (I0) to the intensity of light
transmitted through the film (It) .
Similar to the decibel, using the log of the ratio allows ratios of various
sizes to be described using easy to work with numbers. The following
table shows the relationship between the amount of transmitted light
and the calculated film density.
90

From this table, it can be seen that a density

reading of 2.0 is the result of only one percent of
the incident light making it through the film. At a
density of 4.0 only 0.01% of transmitted light
reaches the far side of the film. Industrial codes
and standards typically require a radiograph to
have a density between 2.0 and 4.0 for
acceptable viewing with common film viewers.
Above 4.0, extremely bright viewing lights is
necessary for evaluation. Contrast within a film
increases with increasing density, so in general
the higher the density the better. When
radiographs will be digitized, densities above 4.0
are often used since digitization systems can
capture and redisplay for easy viewing information
from densities up to 6.0.
91

Film density is measured with a densitometer. A densitometer simply

has a photoelectric sensor that measures the amount of light
transmitted through a piece of film. The film is placed between the
light source and the sensor and a density reading is produced by the
instrument
92

Controlling Radiographic Quality
One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the

use of image quality indicators (IQIs). IQIs, which are also referred to as
penetrameters, provide a means of visually informing the film interpreter of
the contrast sensitivity and definition of the radiograph. The IQI indicates
that a specified amount of change in material thickness will be detectable in
the radiograph, and that the radiograph has a certain level of definition so
that the density changes are not lost due to unsharpness. Without such a
reference point, consistency and quality could not be maintained and
defects could go undetected.
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various
codes or standards that invoke their use. In the United States, two IQI
styles are prevalent: the placard, or hole-type and the wire IQI. IQIs comes
in a variety of material types so that one with radiation absorption
characteristics similar to the material being radiographed can be used.
93

Wire IQIs
ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials

using wire IQIs to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist of a set of six
wires arranged in order of increasing diameter and encapsulated between
two sheets of clear plastic. E747 specifies four wire IQI sets, which control
the wire diameters. The set letter (A, B, C or D) is shown in the lower right
corner of the IQI. The number in the lower left corner indicates the material
group. The same image quality levels and expressions (i.e. 2-2T) used for
hole-type IQIs are typically also used for wire IQIs.
JIS Standard wire IQI consist of a set of seven wires arranged.
94

Placement of Wire IQIs
IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a
material thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible,
the IQI may be placed on a block of similar material and thickness to the
region of interest. When a block is used, the IQI should be the same
distance from the film as it would be if placed directly on the part in the
region of interest. The IQI should also be placed slightly away from the
edge of the part so that at least three of its edges are visible in the
radiograph.
When film side IQI are used a lead letter F should be placed beside the
IQI to indicate the positioning.
95
Radiographs should be reviewed for film quality prior to interpreting the
image for possible defects. Radiographs should be checked for

identification, density and sensitivity and also for the presence of
artefacts that may interfere with the assessment. Where film quality is
unacceptable the area of weld covered by the film should be reradiographed..
96
Identification - Manufacturers may have a method of radiographic
identification which is linked to a quality system but the following is a

guide to the normal requirements for details appearing on the
radiograph.
The identification should include the manufacturers symbol, the

component/item/weld number as appropriate, the location within the weld
(such as location markers 1 to 2, B to C etc) and the date radiography was
carried out.
The identification details usually appear in the image but sometimes a
system of "flashing" the details on to the film before exposure is used. In
all cases location markers which indicate the diagnostic length (extent of
the weld on the film to be examined) must appear as radiographic images.
The repair status of the weld should also be shown, usually by markers
R1(repair), R2(second repair) etc. Identification details must not encroach
on the weld area of interest - the length of weld and heat affected zone
between the length markers.
97
Radiographs (developed film exposed to x-ray or gamma radiation) are
generally viewed on a light-box. However, it is becoming increasingly common

to digitize radiographs and view them on a high resolution monitor. Proper
viewing conditions are very important when interpreting a radiograph. The
viewing conditions can enhance or degrade the subtle details of radiographs.
Before beginning the evaluation of a radiograph, the viewing equipment and
area should be considered. The area should be clean and free of distracting
materials. Magnifying aids, masking aids, and film markers should be close at
hand. Thin cotton gloves should be available and worn to prevent fingerprints
on the radiograph. Ambient light levels should be low. Ambient light levels of
less than 2 fc are often recommended, but subdued lighting (rather than total
darkness) is preferable in the viewing room. The brightness of the surroundings
should be about the same as the area of interest in the radiograph. Room
illumination must be arranged so that there are no reflections from the surface
of the film under examination.
Film viewers should be clean and in good working condition.
98
The radiographic process should be performed in accordance with a written

procedure or code, or as required by contractual documents. The required
documents should be available in the viewing area and referenced as
necessary when evaluating components. Radiographic film quality and
acceptability, as required by the procedure, should first be determined. It
should be verified that the radiograph was produced to the correct density
on the required film type, and that it contains the correct identification
information. It should also be verified that the proper image quality indicator
was used and that the required sensitivity level was met. Next, the
radiograph should be checked to ensure that it does not contain processing
and handling artifacts that could mask discontinuities or other details of
interest. The technician should develop a standard process for evaluating
the radiographs so that details are not overlooked.
Once a radiograph passes these initial checks, it is ready for interpretation.
Radiographic film interpretation is an acquired skill combining visual acuity
with knowledge of materials, manufacturing processes, and their
associated discontinuities. If the component is inspected while in service,
an understanding of applied loads and history of the component is helpful.
A process for viewing radiographs (e.g. left to right, top to bottom, etc.) is
helpful and will prevent overlooking an area on the radiograph. This
process is often developed over time and individualized. The mind as well
as the eyes need to occasionally rest when interpreting radiographs
99
In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer
must also be skilled in radiographic interpretation. Interpretation of

radiographs takes place in three basic steps: (1) detection, (2)
interpretation, and (3) evaluation. All of these steps make use of the
radiographer's visual acuity. Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a
spatial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual to detect
discontinuities in radiography is also affected by the lighting condition
in the place of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing
various features in the image.
Discontinuities: Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical
structure of a material. These interruptions may occur in the base

metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones. Discontinuities, which do
not meet the requirements of the codes or specifications used to
invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as defects.
100
RADIOGRAPHS ARE TO BE INTERPRETED

BY QUALIFIED PERSONNEL
OF THE MANUFACTURER OR ITS SUBCONTRACTOR
101
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Radiographic Testing - Welds

Welds
Cold Laps
Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse
with the base metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap).
The arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly
molten puddle to flow into the base material without bonding
102

Welds
Porosity
Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity

can take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or
irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows.
Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may appear to have a tail. This is the
result of gas attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state
and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material and it
will have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding area.
103

Welds
Cluster porosity
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated

with moisture. The moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes
trapped in the weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear just
like regular porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped
close together.
104

Welds
Slag inclusions
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or

between weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical
shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag
inclusions.
105

Welds
Incomplete penetration (IP)
Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the

weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable
weld discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from
which a crack may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark
area with well-defined, straight edges that follows the land or root face
down the center of the weldment.
106

Welds
Internal concavity
Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has
contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On
a radiograph it looks similar to a lack of penetration but the line has
irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld image
107

Welds
Internal or root undercut
Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of
the weld. In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset
from the centerline of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged
as LOP because it does not follow a ground edge.
108

Welds
Incomplete fusion (IF)
Incomplete fusion (IF) is a condition where the weld filler metal does not
properly fuse with the base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually
appears as a dark line or lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam
along the weld preparation or joining area
109

Welds
External or crown undercut
External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the

crown of the weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line
along the outside edge of the weld area.
110

Welds
Offset or mismatch
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces
being welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image
shows a noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The
difference in density is caused by the difference in material thickness. The
dark, straight line is caused by the failure of the weld metal to fuse with the
land area.
111

Welds
Inadequate weld reinforcement
Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of

weld metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is
very easy to determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate
reinforcement, because the image density in the area of suspected
inadequacy will be higher (darker) than the image density of the
surrounding base material.
112

Welds
Excess weld reinforcement
Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added
in excess of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The
appearance on a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual
inspection will easily determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that
specified by the engineering requirements.
113

Welds
Cracks
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in

a direction that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray
beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines.
Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.
114

Welds
Tungsten inclusions
Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material

used in the electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding
procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped in the weld.
Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than aluminum or steel, therefore
it shows up as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph.
115

Welds
Oxide inclusions
Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded
(especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the
surrounding material and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped
discontinuities in the radiograph.
116
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Radiographic Testing - Welds Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)
Welds
Burn-Through
Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to
penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld,
creating a thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of
metal are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn-through appears as
dark spots, which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).
117
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Radiographic Testing Castings

Castings
Gas porosity or blow holes
Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by

accumulated gas or air which is trapped by
the metal. These discontinuities are usually
smooth-walled rounded cavities of a
spherical, elongated or flattened shape. If the
sprue is not high enough to provide the
necessary heat transfer needed to force the
gas or air out of the mold, the gas or air will
be trapped as the molten metal begins to
solidify. Blows can also be caused by sand
that is too fine, too wet, or by sand that has a
low permeability so that gas cannot escape.
Too high a moisture content in the sand
makes it difficult to carry the excessive
volumes of water vapor away from the
casting. Another cause of blows can be
attributed to using green ladles, rusty or damp
chills and chaplets.
118

Castings
Sand inclusions and dross
Sand inclusions and dross are

nonmetallic oxides, which appear on the
radiograph as irregular, dark blotches.
These come from disintegrated portions
of mold or core walls and/or from oxides
(formed in the melt) which have not been
skimmed off prior to the introduction of
the metal into the mold gates. Careful
control of the melt, proper holding time in
the ladle and skimming of the melt during
pouring will minimize or obviate this
source of trouble.
119

Castings
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that appears as dark spots on the

radiograph. Shrinkage assumes various forms, but in all cases it occurs
because molten metal shrinks as it solidifies, in all portions of the final
casting. Shrinkage is avoided by making sure that the volume of the casting
is adequately fed by risers which sacrificially retain the shrinkage.
Shrinkage in its various forms can be recognized by a number of
characteristics on radiographs. There are at least four types of shrinkage:
(1) cavity; (2) dendritic; (3) filamentary; and (4) sponge types. Some
documents designate these types by numbers, without actual names, to
avoid possible misunderstanding.
120

Castings
Cavity Shrinkage
Cavity shrinkage appears as areas with

distinct jagged boundaries. It may be
produced when metal solidifies between two
original streams of melt coming from opposite
directions to join a common front. Cavity
shrinkage usually occurs at a time when the
melt has almost reached solidification
temperature and there is no source of
supplementary liquid to feed possible
cavities.
121

Castings
Dendritic shrinkage & Filamentary shrinkage
Dendritic shrinkage is a distribution of very fine lines or small elongated

cavities that may vary in density and are usually unconnected.
Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs as a continuous structure of
connected lines or branches of variable length, width and density, or
occasionally as a network.
122

Castings
Sponge shrinkage
Sponge shrinkage shows itself as areas of lacy texture with diffuse outlines,
generally toward the mid-thickness of heavier casting sections. Sponge
shrinkage may be dendritic or filamentary shrinkage. Filamentary sponge
shrinkage appears more blurred because it is projected through the
relatively thick coating between the discontinuities and the film surface.
123

Castings
Cold shuts
Cold shuts generally appear on or near a surface of cast metal as a result

of two streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite. They may appear on a
radiograph as cracks or seams with smooth or rounded edges
124

Castings
Inclusions
Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in an otherwise solid metallic matrix.

They may be less or more dense than the matrix alloy and will appear on
the radiograph, respectively, as darker or lighter indications. The latter type
is more common in light metal castings.
125
6 ULTRASONICS TESTING
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Ultrasonics testing
Ultrasonics Testing (UT)
Ultrasonics use transmission of high-frequency sound waves into a material

to detect imperfections or to locate changes in material properties.
The most commonly used ultrasonic testing technique is pulse echo,
wherein sound is introduced into a test object and reflections (echoes) are
returned to a receiver from internal imperfections or from the part's
geometrical surfaces.
127
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct

examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used
for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements, material
characterization, and more.
A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as
the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an
electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses. Driven by
the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The
sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the
form of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave
path, part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The
reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the
transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected
signal strength is displayed versus the time from signal generation to when
a echo was received. Signal travel time can be directly related to the
distance that the signal traveled. From the signal, information about the
reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be
gained.
128
Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some
of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:
The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to

other NDT methods.
Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is

used.
It allows to determine reflector position and estimating size and shape.
Minimal part preparation is required.
Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw

detection.
129
As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations,
which include:
Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound

energy into the test specimen.
Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or
not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to
low sound transmission and high signal noise.
Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws .
130
Wave Propagation
Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in

materials, which is generally referred to as acoustics. All material
substances are comprised of atoms, which may be forced into vibrational
motion about their equilibrium positions. Many different patterns of
vibrational motion exist at the atomic level, however, most are irrelevant to
acoustics and ultrasonic testing. Acoustics is focused on particles that
contain many atoms that move in unison to produce a mechanical wave.
When a material is not stressed in tension or compression beyond its
elastic limit, its individual particles perform elastic oscillations. When the
particles of a medium are displaced from their equilibrium positions, internal
(electrostatic) restoration forces arise. It is these elastic restoring forces
between particles, combined with inertia of the particles, that leads to the
oscillatory motions of the medium.
In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are
based on the way the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as
longitudinal waves, shear waves, surface waves, and in thin materials as
plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes of
propagation most widely used in ultrasonic testing.
131
Longitudinal and shear Wave Propagation:
In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or

the direction of wave propagation. Since compressional and dilational
forces are active in these waves, they are also called pressure or
compressional waves. They are also sometimes called density waves
because their particle density fluctuates as they move. Compression waves
can be generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels
through the atomic structure by a series of comparison and expansion
(rarefaction) movements.
In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or

transverse to the direction of propagation. Shear waves require an
acoustically solid material for effective propagation, and therefore, are not
effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or gasses. Shear waves
are relatively weak when compared to longitudinal waves. In fact, shear
waves are usually generated in materials using some of the energy from
longitudinal waves..
132
Longitudinal and shear Wave Propagation:
133
Modes of Sound Wave Propagation
In air, sound travels by the compression and rarefaction of air molecules in

the direction of travel. However, in solids, molecules can support vibrations
in other directions, hence, a number of different types of sound waves are
possible. Waves can be characterized in space by oscillatory patterns that
are capable of maintaining their shape and propagating in a stable manner.
The propagation of waves is often described in terms of what are called
wave modes.
As mentioned previously, longitudinal and transverse (shear) waves are
most often used in ultrasonic inspection. However, at surfaces and
interfaces, various types of elliptical or complex vibrations of the particles
make other waves possible.
134
Modes of Sound Wave Propagation
Longitudinal wave
Transverse (Share) wave
Surface (Rayleigh) Wave
Plate (Lamb) wave
135
Properties of Acoustic Plane Wave
Among the properties of waves propagating in isotropic solid materials are

wavelength, frequency, and velocity. The wavelength is directly proportional
to the velocity of the wave and inversely proportional to the frequency of the
wave. This relationship is shown by the following equation.
In ultrasonic testing, the shorter wavelength resulting from an increase in

frequency will usually provide for the detection of smaller discontinuities.
This will be discussed more in following sections.
136

Wavelength and Defect Detection
In ultrasonic testing, the inspector must make a decision about the

frequency of the transducer that will be used. As we noted that changing
the frequency when the sound velocity is fixed will result in a change in the
wavelength of the sound. The wavelength of the ultrasound used has a
significant effect on the probability of detecting a discontinuity. A general
rule is that a discontinuity must be larger than one-half the wavelength to
stand a reasonable chance of being detected.
Sensitivity and resolution are two terms that are often used in ultrasonic
inspection to describe a technique's ability to locate flaws. Sensitivity is the
ability to locate small discontinuities. Sensitivity generally increases with
higher frequency (shorter wavelengths). Resolution is the ability of the
system to locate discontinuities that are close together within the material
or located near the part surface. Resolution also generally increases as the
frequency increases.
137

Wavelength and Defect Detection
The wave frequency can also affect the capability of an inspection in

adverse ways. Therefore, selecting the optimal inspection frequency often
involves maintaining a balance between the favorable and unfavorable
results of the selection. Before selecting an inspection frequency, the
material's grain structure and thickness, and the discontinuity's type, size,
and probable location should be considered. As frequency increases,
sound tends to scatter from large or course grain structure and from small
imperfections within a material. Cast materials often have coarse grains
and other sound scatters that require lower frequencies to be used for
evaluations of these products. Wrought and forged products with directional
and refined grain structure can usually be inspected with higher frequency
transducers.
138
Properties of material affect its speed of sound
Sound does travel at different speeds in different materials. This is because

the mass of the atomic particles and the spring constants are different for
different materials. The mass of the particles is related to the density of the
material, and the spring constant is related to the elastic constants of a
material. The general relationship between the speed of sound in a solid
and its density and elastic constants is given by the following equation:
Examples of approximate compressional sound velocities in materials are:

Aluminum - 0.632 cm/microsecond, 1020 steel - 0.589 cm/microsecond,
Cast iron - 0.480 cm/microsecond.
Examples of approximate shear sound velocities in materials are:
Aluminum - 0.313 cm/microsecond, 1020 steel - 0.324 cm/microsecond,
Cast iron - 0.240 cm/microsecond.
139

Attenuation of Sound Waves
When sound travels through a medium, its intensity

diminishes with distance. In idealized materials, sound
pressure (signal amplitude) is only reduced by the
spreading of the wave. Natural materials, however, all
produce an effect which further weakens the sound. This
further weakening results from scattering and absorption.
Scattering is the reflection of the sound in directions other
than its original direction of propagation. Absorption is the
conversion of the sound energy to other forms of energy.
The combined effect of scattering and absorption is called
attenuation. Ultrasonic attenuation is the decay rate of the
wave as it propagates through material.
Attenuation of sound within a material itself is often not of

intrinsic interest. However, natural properties and loading
conditions can be related to attenuation. Attenuation often
serves as a measurement tool that leads to the formation of
theories to explain physical or chemical phenomenon that
decreases the ultrasonic intensity.
140
Acoustic Impedance
Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure.

Because molecules or atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one
another, the excess pressure results in a wave propagating through the
solid.
The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the product of its
density (p) and acoustic velocity (V).
Z = pV
Acoustic impedance is important in:

the determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at the
boundary of two materials having different acoustic impedances.
the design of ultrasonic transducers.
assessing absorption of sound in a medium.
141
Reflection and Transmission Coefficients (Pressure)
Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries where there is a difference in

acoustic impedances (Z) of the materials on each side of the boundary.
(See preceding page for more information on acoustic impedance.) This
difference in Z is commonly referred to as the impedance mismatch. The
greater the impedance mismatch, the greater the percentage of energy that
will be reflected at the interface or boundary between one medium and
another.
The fraction of the incident wave intensity that is refracted can be derived
because particle velocity and local particle pressures must be continuous
across the boundary. When the acoustic impedances of the materials on
both sides of the boundary are known, the fraction of the incident wave
intensity that is reflected can be calculated with the equation below. The
value produced is known as the reflection coefficient. Multiplying the
reflection coefficient by 100 yields the amount of energy reflected as a
percentage of the original energy.
142

Reflection and Transmission Coefficients (Pressure)
Note that the reflection and transmission coefficients are often expressed in decibels
(dB) to allow for large changes in signal strength to be more easily compared. To
convert the intensity or power of the wave to dB units, take the log of the reflection or
transmission coefficient and multiply this value times 10. However, 20 is the
multiplier used in the applet since the power of sound is not measured directly in
ultrasonic testing. The transducers produce a voltage that is approximately
proportionally to the sound pressure. The power carried by a traveling wave is
proportional to the square of the pressure amplitude. Therefore, to estimate the
signal amplitude change, the log of the reflection or transmission coefficient is
multiplied by 20.
If reflection and transmission at interfaces is followed through the component, only a
small percentage of the original energy makes it back to the transducer, even when
loss by attenuation is ignored. For example, consider an immersion inspection of a
steel block. The sound energy leaves the transducer, travels through the water,
encounters the front surface of the steel, encounters the back surface of the steel
and reflects back through the front surface on its way back to the transducer. At the
water steel interface (front surface), 12% of the energy is transmitted. At the back
surface, 88% of the 12% that made it through the front surface is reflected. This is
10.6% of the intensity of the initial incident wave. As the wave exits the part back
through the front surface, only 12% of 10.6 or 1.3% of the original energy is
transmitted back to the transducer
143

Refraction and Snell's Law
When an ultrasounic wave passes through an interface

between two materials at an oblique angle, and the materials
have different indices of refraction, both reflected and
refracted waves are produced. This also occurs with light,
which is why objects seen across an interface appear to be
shifted relative to where they really are. For example, if you
look straight down at an object at the bottom of a glass of
water, it looks closer than it really is. A good way to visualize
how light and sound refract is to shine a flashlight into a bowl
of slightly cloudy water noting the refraction angle with respect
to the incident angle.
Refraction takes place at an interface due to the different
velocities of the acoustic waves within the two materials. The
velocity of sound in each material is determined by the
material properties (elastic modulus and density) for that
material. In the animation below, a series of plane waves are
shown traveling in one material and entering a second
material that has a higher acoustic velocity. Therefore, when
the wave encounters the interface between these two
materials, the portion of the wave in the second material is
moving faster than the portion of the wave in the first material.
It can be seen that this causes the wave to bend.
144

Note that in the diagram, there is a reflected longitudinal wave (VL1' )

shown. This wave is reflected at the same angle as the incident wave
because the two waves are traveling in the same material, and hence
have the same velocities. This reflected wave is unimportant in our
explanation of Snell's Law, but it should be remembered that some of
the wave energy is reflected at the interface. In the applet below, only
the incident and refracted longitudinal waves are shown. The angle of
either wave can be adjusted by clicking and dragging the mouse in the
region of the arrows. Values for the angles or acoustic velocities can
also be entered in the dialog boxes so the that applet can be used as a
Snell's Law calculator.
145

When a longitudinal wave moves from a slower to a faster material,

there is an incident angle that makes the angle of refraction for the wave
90o. This is know as the first critical angle. The first critical angle can be
found from Snell's law by putting in an angle of 90 for the angle of the
refracted ray. At the critical angle of incidence, much of the acoustic
energy is in the form of an inhomogeneous compression wave, which
travels along the interface and decays exponentially with depth from the
interface. This wave is sometimes referred to as a "creep wave."
Because of their inhomogeneous nature and the fact that they decay
rapidly, creep waves are not used as extensively as Rayleigh surface
waves in NDT. However, creep waves are sometimes more useful than
Rayleigh waves because they suffer less from surface irregularities and
coarse material microstructure due to their longer wavelengths
146
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
The detection of a defect involves many factors other than the relationship
of wavelength and flaw size. For example, the amount of sound that reflects
from a defect is also dependent on the acoustic impedance mismatch
between the flaw and the surrounding material. A void is generally a better
reflector than a metallic inclusion because the impedance mismatch is
greater between air and metal than between two metals.
Often, the surrounding material has competing reflections. Microstructure
grains in metals and the aggregate of concrete are a couple of examples. A
good measure of detectability of a flaw is its signal-to-noise ratio (S/N). The
signal-to-noise ratio is a measure of how the signal from the defect
compares to other background reflections (categorized as "noise"). A
signal-to-noise ratio of 3 to 1 is often required as a minimum.
147
Piezoelectric Transducers
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the

conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is
the basis for ultrasonic testing. The active element is the heart of the
transducer as it converts the electrical energy to acoustic energy, and vice
versa. The active element is basically a piece of polarized material (i.e.
some parts of the molecule are positively charged, while other parts of the
molecule are negatively charged) with electrodes attached to two of its
opposite faces. When an electric field is applied across the material, the
polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric field, resulting in
induced dipoles within the molecular or crystal structure of the material.
This alignment of molecules will cause the material to change dimensions.
This phenomenon is known as electrostriction. In addition, a permanentlypolarized material such as quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3) will
produce an electric field when the material changes dimensions as a result
of an imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the
piezoelectric effect.
148
Piezoelectric Transducers
149

Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers
The transducer is a very important part of the ultrasonic instrumentation

system. It incorporates a piezoelectric element, which converts electrical
signals into mechanical vibrations (transmit mode) and mechanical
vibrations into electrical signals (receive mode). Many factors, including
material, mechanical and electrical construction, and the external
mechanical and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior of a
transducer. Mechanical construction includes parameters such as the
radiation surface area, mechanical damping, housing, connector type and
other variables of physical construction.
The piezoelectric element is cut to 1/2 the desired wavelength. To get as

much energy out of the transducer as possible, an impedance matching is
placed between the active element and the face of the transducer. Optimal
impedance matching is achieved by sizing the matching layer so that its
thickness is 1/4 of the desired wavelength. This keeps waves that were
reflected within the matching layer in phase when they exit the layer.
The backing material supporting the crystal has a great influence on the
damping characteristics of a transducer.
150

Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers
A cut away of a typical contact transducer is shown below:
151
Transducer Efficiency, Bandwidth and Frequency
A transducer that performs well in one application will not always produce
the desired results in a different application. For example, sensitivity to
small defects is proportional to the product of the efficiency of the
transducer as a transmitter and a receiver. Resolution, the ability to locate
defects near the surface or in close proximity in the material, requires a
highly damped transducer.
The frequency noted on a transducer is the central or center frequency and
depends primarily on the backing material. Highly damped transducers will
respond to frequencies above and below the central frequency. The broad
frequency range provides a transducer with high resolving power. Less
damped transducers will exhibit a narrower frequency range and poorer
resolving power, but greater penetration. The central frequency will also
define the capabilities of a transducer. Lower frequencies (0.5MHz2.25MHz) provide greater energy and penetration in a material, while high
frequency crystals (15.0MHz-25.0MHz) provide reduced penetration but
greater sensitivity to small discontinuities.
152

Radiated Fields of Ultrasonic Transducers
The sound that emanates from a piezoelectric transducer does not

originate from a point, but instead originates from most of the surface of the
piezoelectric element. Round transducers are often referred to as piston
source transducers because the sound field resembles a cylindrical mass in
front of the transducer. The sound field from a typical piezoelectric
transducer is shown below. The intensity of the sound is indicated by color,
with lighter colors indicating higher intensity.
These are sometimes also referred to as diffraction effects. This wave
interference leads to extensive fluctuations in the sound intensity near the
source and is known as the near field. Because of acoustic variations within
a near field, it can be extremely difficult to accurately evaluate flaws in
materials when they are positioned within this area.
153

Radiated Fields of Ultrasonic Transducers
The pressure waves combine to form a relatively uniform front at the end of
the near field. The area beyond the near field where the ultrasonic beam is
more uniform is called the far field. In the far field, the beam spreads out in
a pattern originating from the center of the transducer. The transition
between the near field and the far field occurs at a distance, N, and is
sometimes referred to as the "natural focus" of a flat (or unfocused)
transducer. The near/far field distance, N, is significant because amplitude
variations that characterize the near field change to a smoothly declining
amplitude at this point. The area just beyond the near field is where the
sound wave is well behaved and at its maximum strength. Therefore,
optimal detection results will be obtained when flaws occur in this area.
154

Transducer Types
It is important to choose transducers that have the desired frequency,

bandwidth, and focusing to optimize inspection capability. Most often the
transducer is chosen either to enhance the sensitivity or resolution of the
system.
Transducers are classified into groups according to the application.
Contact transducers and Immersion transducers
Dual element transducers and single transducers
Delay and normal line transducers
Angle beam and straight beam transducers
155
Couplant
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of

ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is
generally necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch between
air and solids (i.e. such as the test specimen) is large. Therefore, nearly all
of the energy is reflected and very little is transmitted into the test material.
The couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get more sound
energy into the test specimen so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be
obtained. In contact ultrasonic testing a thin film of oil, glycerin or water is
generally used between the transducer and the test surface.
When scanning over the part or making precise measurements, an
immersion technique is often used. In immersion ultrasonic testing both the
transducer and the part are immersed in the couplant, which is typically
water. This method of coupling makes it easier to maintain consistent
coupling while moving and manipulating the transducer and/or the part.
156
Data Presentation
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different

formats. The three most common formats are know in the NDT world as Ascan, B-scan and C-scan presentations. Each presentation mode
provides a different way of looking at and evaluating the region of material
being inspected. Modern computerized ultrasonic scanning systems can
display data in all three presentation forms simultaneously.
157

Crack Tip Diffraction
When the geometry of the part is relatively uncomplicated and the

orientation of a flaw is well known, the length (a) of a crack can be
determined by a technique known as tip diffraction. One common
application of the tip diffraction technique is to determine the length of a
crack originating from on the backside of a flat plate as shown below. In this
case, when an angle beam transducer is scanned over the area of the flaw,
the principle echo comes from the base of the crack to locate the position
of the flaw (Image 1). A second, much weaker echo comes from the tip of
the crack and since the distance traveled by the ultrasound is less, the
second signal appears earlier in time on the scope (Image 2).
158

Attenuation Measurements
Ultrasonic wave propagation is influenced by the microstructure of the

material through which it propagates. The velocity of the ultrasonic waves is
influenced by the elastic moduli and the density of the material, which in
turn are mainly governed by the amount of various phases present and the
damage in the material. Ultrasonic attenuation, which is the sum of the
absorption and the scattering, is mainly dependent upon the damping
capacity and scattering from the grain boundary in the material. However,
to fully characterize the attenuation required knowledge of a large number
of thermo-physical parameters that in practice are hard to quantify.
159

Attenuation Measurements
Relative measurements such as the change of attenuation and simple

qualitative tests are easier to make than absolute measure. Relative
attenuation measurements can be made by examining the exponential
decay of multiple back surface reflections. However, significant variations in
microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties often produce
only a relatively small change in wave velocity and attenuation.
Absolute measurements of attenuation are very difficult to obtain because
the echo amplitude depends on factors in addition to amplitude. The most
common method used to get quantitative results is to use an ultrasonic
source and detector transducer separated by a known distance. By varying
the separation distance, the attenuation can be measured from the
changes in the amplitude.
160

Calibration Methods
Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and
accuracy of measurement equipment. In ultrasonic testing, several forms of
calibration must occur. First, the electronics of the equipment must be
calibrated to ensure that they are performing as designed. This operation is
usually performed by the equipment manufacturer.
It is also usually necessary for the operator to perform a "user calibration"
of the equipment. This user calibration is necessary because most
ultrasonic equipment can be reconfigured for use in a large variety of
applications. The user must "calibrate" the system, which includes the
equipment settings, the transducer, and the test setup, to validate that the
desired level of precision and accuracy are achieved. The term calibration
standard is usually only used when an absolute value is measured.
161

Calibration Methods
In ultrasonic testing, there is also a need for reference standards.

Reference standards are used to establish a general level of consistency in
measurements and to help interpret and quantify the information contained
in the received signal. Reference standards are used to validate that the
equipment and the setup provide similar results from one day to the next
and that similar results are produced by different systems. Reference
standards also help the inspector to estimate the size of flaws. In a pulseecho type setup, signal strength depends on both the size of the flaw and
the distance between the flaw and the transducer. The inspector can use a
reference standard with an artificially induced flaw of known size and at
approximately the same distance away for the transducer to produce a
signal. By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that
received from the actual flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw size.
Some of these specimens are shown in the figure below.
162
Introduction to the Common Standards
Calibration and reference standards for ultrasonic testing come in many

shapes and sizes. The type of standard used is dependent on the NDE
application and the form and shape of the object being evaluated. The
material of the reference standard should be the same as the material
being inspected and the artificially induced flaw should closely resemble
that of the actual flaw. This second requirement is a major limitation of most
standard reference samples. Most use drilled holes and notches that do not
closely represent real flaws. In most cases the artificially induced defects in
reference standards are better reflectors of sound energy (due to their
flatter and smoother surfaces) and produce indications that are larger than
those that a similar sized flaw would produce.
Producing more "realistic" defects is cost prohibitive in most cases and,
therefore, the inspector can only make an estimate of the flaw size.
Computer programs that allow the inspector to create computer simulated
models of the part and flaw may one day lessen this limitation.
163
IIW Type Mini Standard
IIW type blocks are used to calibrate instruments for both angle beam and
normal incident inspections. Some of their uses include setting metaldistance and sensitivity settings, determining the sound exit point and
refracted angle of angle beam transducers, and evaluating depth resolution
of normal beam inspection setups. Instructions on using the IIW type blocks
can be found in the annex of American Society for Testing and Materials
Standard E164, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Examination of
Weldments.
164
The Miniature Angle-Beam or ROMPAS Calibration Block
Standard
The miniature angle-beam is a calibration block that was designed for the
US Air Force for use in the field for instrument calibration. The block is
much smaller and lighter than the IIW block but performs many of the same
functions. The miniature angle-beam block can be used to check the beam
angle and exit point of the transducer. The block can also be used to make
metal-distance and sensitivity calibrations for both angle and normal-beam
inspection setups.
165
Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks Standard
Distance/area amplitude correction blocks typically are purchased as a tenblock set, as shown above. Aluminum sets are manufactured per the
requirements of ASTM E127 and steel sets per ASTM E428. Sets can also
be purchased in titanium. Each block contains a single flat-bottomed,
plugged hole. The hole sizes and metal path distances are as follows:
3/64" at 3"
5/64" at 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 11/2", 3", and 6"
8/64" at 3" and 6"
166
Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)
Acoustic signals from the same reflecting surface will have different
amplitudes at different distances from the transducer. Distance amplitude
correction (DAC) provides a means of establishing a graphic reference
level sensitivity as a function of sweep distance on the A-scan display. The
use of DAC allows signals reflected from similar discontinuities to be
evaluated where signal attenuation as a function of depth has been
correlated. Most often DAC will allow for loss in amplitude over material
depth (time), graphically on the A-scan display but can also be done
electronically by certain instruments. Because near field length and beam
spread vary according to transducer size and frequency, and materials vary
in attenuation and velocity, a DAC curve must be established for each
different situation. DAC may be employed in both longitudinal and shear
modes of operation as well as either contact or immersion inspection
techniques.
167

Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)
A distance amplitude correction curve is constructed from the peak

amplitude responses from reflectors of equal area at different distances in
the same material. A-scan echoes are displayed at their non-electronically
compensated height and the peak amplitude of each signal is marked on
the flaw detector screen or, preferably, on a transparent plastic sheet
attached to the screen. Reference standards which incorporate side drilled
holes (SDH), flat bottom holes (FBH), or notches whereby the reflectors are
located at varying depths are commonly used. It is important to recognize
that regardless of the type of reflector used, the size and shape of the
reflector must be constant.
168

Weldments (Welded Joints)
The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag
inclusions, lack of side-wall fusion, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of root
penetration, undercutting, and longitudinal or transverse cracks.
With the exception of single gas pores all the defects listed are usually well
detectable by ultrasonics. Most applications are on low-alloy construction
quality steels, however, welds in aluminum can also be tested. Ultrasonic
flaw detection has long been the preferred method for nondestructive
testing in welding applications. This safe, accurate, and simple technique
has pushed ultrasonics to the forefront of inspection technology.
Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using a straight beam
transducer in conjunction with an angle beam transducer and wedge. A
straight beam transducer, producing a longitudinal wave at normal
incidence into the test piece, is first used to locate any laminations in or
near the heat-affected zone. This is important because an angle beam
transducer may not be able to provide a return signal from a laminar flaw.
169

The second step in the inspection involves using an angle beam transducer
to inspect the actual weld. Angle beam transducers use the principles of
refraction and mode conversion to produce refracted shear or longitudinal
waves in the test material. [Note: Many AWS inspections are performed
using refracted shear waves. However, material having a large grain
structure, such as stainless steel may require refracted longitudinal waves
for successful inspections.] This inspection may include the root, sidewall,
crown, and heat-affected zones of a weld. The process involves scanning
the surface of the material around the weldment with the transducer. This
refracted sound wave will bounce off a reflector (discontinuity) in the path of
the sound beam. With proper angle beam techniques, echoes returned
from the weld zone may allow the operator to determine the location and
type of discontinuity. .
170

To determine the proper scanning area for the weld, the inspector must first
calculate the location of the sound beam in the test material. Using the
refracted angle, beam index point and material thickness, the V-path and
skip distance of the sound beam is found. Once they have been calculated,
the inspector can identify the transducer locations on the surface of the
material corresponding to the crown, sidewall, and root of the weld.
171
Angle Beam Transducer
T
F
172
Surface beam transducer
173
174

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MATERIALS AND WELDING

BVN TM MW1 Non-Destructive Testing

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING General principles

The field of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a very broad, interdisciplinary

NDT is a matter of qualified specialists. Surveyors are not these

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING General principles

Each method is limited by its physical principles and may be complemented

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING General principles

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING General principles

Operators are generally to be qualified according to a nationally recognised

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING General principles

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING General principles

MATERIALS AND TESTING Principles of testing

MATERIALS AND TESTING Principles of testing

MATERIALS AND TESTING Principles of testing

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING General principles

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Visual Testing

Most extensively used method which is very practical and

Examination is conducted on clean surfaces (on finished welds free from

During welding; Visible imperfections, cleaning

After welding; Visible imperfections, weld dimensions

3 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

The method is based on the ability of a penetrating liquid (known as penetrant)

Only imperfections which break the surface can be detected

Procedure shall detail the calibration equipment, surface preparation, cleaning

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

Red dye with white developer under normal light

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

Fluorescent dye with developer under ultraviolet light

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw penetrant

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

Common Uses of Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Liquid penetrant inspection (PT) is one of the most widely used

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

The method has high sensitivity to small surface discontinuities.

Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.

Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Liquid Penetrant Testing

Only surface breaking defects can be detected.

Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.

Precleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.

Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.

Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.

Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.

Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.

4 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Magnetic Particle Testing

The material is magnetized using an electromagnetic magnet (Yoke method) or

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Magnetic Particle Testing

In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MT) is a relatively simple concept. It

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Magnetic Particle Testing

The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet