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Welding Processes

Basic ideas, Terminology,


Properties of the welding arc

Fusion and pressure welding


Heat sources
Arc, gas, power beam,
electrical resistance
Shielding
Flux (MMAW, SAW)
Gas (GTAW, GMAW)
Vacuum (EBW)

Welding
direction

Typical weld joint

Butt joint, butt weld

T - Joint, fillet weld

Lap joint, fillet weld

Types of joints and welds

Edge preparation
Filler material and weld metal
Weld metal (fusion zone)
Heat-affected zone (HAZ)
Unaffected parent material
Manual, semi-automatic and automatic welding
Welding positions: Flat, horizontal, vertical,
overhead

Heat-affected zone
(HAZ)

Weld metal
(Fusion zone)

Unaffected
parent material

Fusion and heat-affected zones

Properties of the welding arc


Arc: Electrical discharge between two electrodes
Gaseous medium Need to ionize the gas
Gas molecules should dissociate first!
Arc cannot exist in high vacuum!
Stray electrons and ions due to atom-atom
collisions
Influence of temperature increase in ion density

Application of electrical potential / field :


Increase in voltage Acceleration of
electrons,
electron-atom collisions,
increase in ion density
Concept of ionization potential / voltage
Thermionic emission from cathode
Steep increase in ionization
Definition of plasma: Ionized state of gas
containing electrons and positive ions
Also present with plasma: Neutral atoms,
undissociated molecules

Ionization potentials
Element

Ionization potl. (eV)

Argon

15.7

CO2

14.4

Helium

24.9

Hydrogen

15.6

Nitrogen

14.5

Oxygen

13.6

Ion density:
ne ni /no = [2 Zi (2mkT)3/2 exp(-V/kt)]/ Zoh3
where ne, ni and no= particle densities
for electrons, ions and neutral atoms,
V = ionization potential,
T= Temperature in 0K,
Zi , Zo=Partition functions, h=Plancks const. ,
m = Mass of electron, k = Boltzmanns const.
Particle densities of order of 1011 to 1014/mm3

Temperature of the arc


Temperature function of nature of the gas
and the current intensity
Max. temp. between 5,000 and 50,000 K
Measured values between 5,000 and 30,000 K
Constricted arcs: As high as 50,000 K
SMAW: Easily ionizable Na and K salts in
coating lower temperature ~ 6000 K
Pure inert gas: Axial temperature up to 30000 K

Arc temp. limited by heat losses from arc


by conduction, convection and radiation

Determination of arc temperatures by


measuring spectral radiation emitted
Core of arc hottest zone, mantle less hot
Steep temperature gradients

Movement of e-s to anode and +ve ions to cathode


Anode always hotter than the cathode
Anode heated by kinetic energy of electrons
falling on cathode, cathode by KE of +ve ions
However, +ve ions move slowly,
so less contribution in unit time
Cathode loses energy by thermionic emission
Significance for electrode polarity

Electrical features of arc


Arc impedance inversely proportional to
density of ions and their mobility
Arc power P = I [Ea + Ec + Ep], where
Ea = Anode fall
Ec = Cathode fall
Ep = Plasma voltage drop

Arc voltage falls and rises again


as arc current is increased
Initial fall related to thermionic emission
from cathode and increasing ionization
Voltage increases as arc length rises:
more of arc column exposed to cool
boundary, more charge carriers lost,
higher voltage required to maintain
ion density

Arc voltage as a function of current

Necessity of thermionic emission


Choice of cathode material
Non-consumable electrode: Tungsten, also
thoriated and zirconiated electrodes
Consumable electrode: Easily ionizable
substances in coatings or cores

Arc and power source characteristics


Arc characteristic: Voltage- current relation
similar to Ohms law at higher currents, function
of nature of gas, arc length, electrode/coating
Power source characteristic: OCV, SCC
Constant potential and constant current types
Const. current/drooping: For manual welding
Const. potential or flat: For semi-auto. welding

Power source characteristics

Power source
characteristic

Arc
characteristic

OCV

Voltage

Operating
point

SCC
Current

Electrical behaviour of arc and power source

Bring here the German VdI volt-ampere curve

Forces in the arc


Pressure generated from
gas evolution at electrode tip
Electrostatic attraction between electrodes
Gravity
Electromagnetic forces
Explosive evaporation of necked filament
between drop & electrode
Friction effects of plasma jet

Arc current magnetic field around arc


Shape of arc: Divergent from electrode to
work, bell-shaped
Interaction between arc current and
magnetic field electromagnetic forces
Two important components:
Pinch effect and plasma jet
Significance for metal transfer

Pinch effect

Pinch effect:
Radial component of magnetic field around arc
squeezes the axial conductor (plasma, droplet &c)
- assisted by
release of gases from the metal;
explosive evaporation due to high current
through remaining thin filament
Detachment of droplet from consumable electrode

Plasma jet:
Detached droplet accelerated by plasma jet
towards weld pool, sucked in by surface tension
on contact with weld puddle

Possibility of deflecting arc through external


magnetic field Flemings left-hand thumb rule
Forward deflection Wider, uniform weld, shallow,
but controlled penetration, good for thin sections
Multiwire SAW: Higher speed without undercut
Backward deflection Undercutting,
excessive reinforcement
Alternating magnetic field Arc oscillation
Possible benefits: Grain refinement,
bead control in hot-wire GTAW
Unwanted magnetic disturbances Arc blow
Lower voltageShorter, stiffer arc, resists arc blow

Metal Transfer
Consumable electrode processes for
higher efficiency need for metal transfer
Requirement of smooth transfer:
Avoid spatter, uncontrolled short circuit,
arc instability due to erratic transfer,
possibility of drawing air into the arc
Types of transfer: Globular, spray,
short circuit types

Types of metal transfer:

Globular transfer
(Axial) spray transfer
Short circuit (or dip) transfer
Pulsed transfer

Desirability of spray transfer (stable,


smooth, spatter-free, axial and stiff
possibility of vertical/overhead welds
Need to exceed transition current

Transition currents for spray transfer


Transition from drop to spray:
f (electrode material, diameter, gas)
Electrode dia.
Transition current (A)
(mm)
Steel (Ar+2%O2) Al (Ar)
0.75
155
90
0.9
170
95
1.15
220
120
1.55
275
170

Initiating the arc


Un-ionized gases insulating in nature, very high
voltages needed to make them conduct
Measures required to ionize the gas
Two methods practised:
Short-circuiting or touch start
Impose high voltage, but for very short time

Short circuit ignition (Striking the arc)


Touch electrode to workpiece (res. heating
& fuse action), withdraw electrode
slightly but quickly to a short distance drawing an arc
Thermionic emission from cathode,
high electric field, acceleration & ionization
High voltage not required (OCV just ~ 60V)
Example: MMAW / SMAW

2) High-frequency spark discharge


Superpose on welding power supply
a high-voltage, high-frequency a.c.:
1-5 kV, 2-4 A, 0.2-4.0 MHz
Take electrode close to work surface,
but no short circuit
High electric field
Ionization from stray electrons
Example: GTAW

Welding processes
Fusion welding

Pressure welding
Cold pressure
welding

Diffusion

Explosive

bonding

welding

Hot pressure
welding

Chemical reaction
Gas
welding

Ultrasonic
welding

Thermit
welding

Electrical LBW EBW


resistance
Resistance
welding

Electroslag
welding

Electric arc

Friction welding

Gas shielded

Flux-shielded
SMAW

SAW

PAW

GTAW
GMAW
Including
FCAW

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