Metal

Casting
By S K
 Sand casting
Sand casting uses ordinary sand as the
primary mould material.
The sand grains are mixed with small
amounts of other materials, such as clay and
water, to improve mouldability and cohesive
strength, and are then packed around a
pattern that has the shape of the desired
casting.
The pattern must be removed before
pouring, the mold is usually made in two or
more pieces.
An opening called a sprue hole is cut from
Contd
 The molten metal is poured into the sprue
hole, flows through the runners, and enters
the mold cavity through an opening called a
gate.
Gravity flow is the most common means of
introducing the metal into the mold.
After solidification, the mold is broken and the
finished casting is removed.
The casting is then fettled by cutting off the
ingate and the feeder head.
Because the mold is destroyed, a new mold
must be made for each casting.
Contd
 Sequential steps in making a
sand casting
A pattern board is placed between the bottom (drag)
and top (cope) halves of a flask, with the bottom side
up.

Sand is then packed into the drag half of the mold.

A bottom board is positioned on top of the packed

sand, and the mold is turned over, showing the top
(cope) half of pattern with sprue and riser pins in
place.

The cope half of the mold is then packed with sand.

Contd
The mold is opened, the pattern board is
drawn (removed), and the runner and gate
are cut into the surface of the sand.

The mold is reassembled with the pattern

board removed, and molten metal is poured
through the sprue.

The contents are shaken from the flask and

the metal segment is separated from the
sand, ready for further processing.
 Casting Terms
Flask: A moulding flask is one which holds

the sand mould intact. It is made up of wood

for temporary applications or metal for long-
term use.
Drag: Lower moulding flask.

Cope: Upper moulding flask.

Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in

three-piece moulding. Contd

Three flask mould
Pattern: Pattern is a replica of the final object

to be made with some modifications.

Parting line: This is the dividing line between

the two moulding flasks that makes up the

sand mould.
Bottom board: This is a board normally made

of wood, which is used at the start of the mould

making.
Contd
Moulding sand: The freshly prepared
refractory material used for making the mould
cavity. It is a mixture of silica, clay and
moisture in appropriate proportions.
Backing sand: This is made up of used and

burnt sand.
Core: Used for making hollow cavities in

castings.
Pouring basin: A small funnel-shaped cavity at the

top of the mould into which the molten metal is

poured.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal

from the pouring basin reaches the mould cavity.

Runner: The passage ways in the parting plane

through which molten metal flow is regulated before

they reach the mould cavity.
Gate: The actual entry point through which molten

metal enters the mould cavity in a controlled rate.

Contd
Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside

the mould cavity.

Chill: Chills are metallic objects, which are placed

in the mould to increase the cooling rate of

castings.
Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in

the casting so that hot metal can flow back into the
mould cavity when there is a reduction in volume of
metal due to solidification
Contd
 Padding
Tapering of thinner section towards thicker
section is known as 'padding'.
This will require extra material.
If padding is not provided, centre line
shrinkage or porosity will result in the
thinner section.
 IES-1996
Which of the following methods are used for
obtaining directional solidification for riser design

1. Suitable placement of chills

2. Suitable placement of chaplets

3. Employing padding
Select the correct answer.

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2

and 3
 Pattern
A pattern is a replica of the object to be made
by the casting process, with some
modifications.
The main modifications are
The addition of pattern allowances,
The provision of core prints, and
Elimination of fine details, which cannot be
obtained by casting and hence are to be
obtained by further processing
 Pattern Allowances
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance

2. Draft or taper allowance

3. Machining or finish allowance

4. Distortion or camber allowance

5. Rapping allowance
 Shrinkage allowance
All metals shrink when cooling except perhaps

bismuth.
This is because of the inter-atomic vibrations

which are amplified by an increase in

temperature.
The shrinkage allowance is always to be

added to the linear dimensions. Even in case

of internal dimensions.
Contd
Liquid shrinkage and solid
shrinkage
Liquid shrinkage refers to the reduction in
volume when the metal changes temperature from
pouring to solidus temperature in liquid state. To
account for this, risers are provided in the moulds.
Solidification shrinkage refers to the reduction
in volume when metal changes from liquid to solid
state at the solidus temperature. To account for
this, risers are provided in the moulds.
Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume
caused, when a metal loses temperature in the
solid state. The shrinkage allowance is provided to
take care of this reduction.
Gray CI with a carbon equivalent of 4.3%

has negative shrinkage, that is, it actually

expands upto 2.5% because of graphite
precipitation. So, for this, no riser is
needed.
Pattern Allowances
Cast Iron 10 mm/m
Brass, Copper, Aluminium 15 mm/m
Steel 20 mm/m
Zinc, Lead 25 mm/m
 GATE-2004
Gray cast iron blocks 200 x 100 x 10 mm
are to be cast in sand moulds. Shrinkage
allowance for pattern making is 1%. The
ratio of the volume of pattern to that of the
casting will be

(a) 0.97 (b) 0.99 (c) 1.01 (d) 1.03

 GATE-2016
Gray cast iron blocks of size 100 mm x
50 mm x 10 mm with a central
spherical cavity of diameter 4 mm are
sand cast. The shrinkage allowance
for the pattern is 3%. The ratio of the
volume of the pattern to volume of
the casting is ____________
 GATE 2011
A cubic casting of 50 mm side undergoes
volumetric solidification shrinkage and
volumetric solid contraction of 4% and 6%
respectively. No riser is used. Assume
uniform cooling in all directions. The side of
the cube after solidification and contraction
is
(a) 48.32 mm
(b) 49.90 mm
(c) 49.94 mm
(d) 49.96 mm
 Draft
To reduce the chances of the damage of the

mould cavity at the time of pattern removal,

the vertical faces of the pattern are always
tapered from the parting line. This provision is
called draft allowance.
Inner surfaces of the pattern require higher

draft than outer surfaces.

Draft is always provided as an extra metal.
DRAFT ALLOWANCE
 Shake Allowance
At the time of pattern removal, the pattern is

rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge

the mould cavity slightly to facilitates its
removal.
It is a negative allowance and is to be

applied only to those dimensions, which are

parallel to the parting plane.
 Distortion Allowance
A metal when it has just solidified is very weak
and therefore is likely to be distortion prone.

This is particularly so for weaker sections such

as long flat portions, V, U sections or in a
complicated casting which may have thin and
long sections which are connected to thick
sections.

The foundry practice should be to make extra

material provision for reducing the distortion.
 Pattern Materials
Wood patterns are relatively easy to make. Wood
is not very dimensionally stable. Commonly used
teak, white pine and mahogany wood.
Metal patterns are more expensive but are more
dimensionally stable and more durable.
Commonly used CI, Brass, aluminium and white
metal.
Hard plastics, such as urethanes, and are often
preferred with processes that use strong,
organically bonded sands that tend to stick to
other pattern materials.
In the full-mold process, expanded polystyrene
(EPS) is used.
 The pattern material
should be
Easily worked, shaped and joined

Light in weight

Strong, hard and durable

Resistant to wear and abrasion

Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions

Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations

in temperature and humidity.

Available at low cost.
 IES-1994
Which of the following materials can be used
for making patterns?

1. Aluminium 2. Wax 3. Mercury 4. Lead

Select the correct answer using the codes

given below:
Codes:

(a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 2,3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d)

1, 2 and 3
 Types of Pattern
Single Piece Pattern
These are inexpensive and the simplest
type of patterns. As the name indicates, they
are made of a single piece.

Gated Pattern
Gating and runner system are integral
with the pattern. This would eliminate the
hand cutting of the runners and gates and
help in improving the productivity of a
moulding.
 Types of Pattern
Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern
This is the most widely used type of pattern
for intricate castings. When the contour of
the casting makes its withdrawal from the mould
difficult, or when the depth of the casting is too
high, then the pattern is split into two parts so
that one part is in the drag and the other in the
cope.
 Types of Pattern
Cope and Drag Pattern
These are similar to split patterns. In
addition to splitting the pattern, the cope
and drag halves of the pattern along with
the gating and riser systems are attached
separately to the metal or wooden plates
along with the alignment pins. They are
called the cope and drag patterns.
 Types of Pattern
Match Plate Pattern
The cope and drag patterns along with
the gating and the risering are mounted
on a single matching metal or wooden
plate on either side.
 Types of Pattern
Loose Piece Pattern
This type of pattern is also used when
the contour of the part is such that
withdrawing the pattern from the mould
is not possible.
 Types of Pattern
Follow Board Pattern
This type of pattern is adopted for those
castings where there are some portions,
which are structurally weak and if not
supported properly are likely to break
under the force of ramming.
 Types of Pattern
Sweep Pattern
It is used to sweep the complete casting
by means of a plane sweep. These are
used for generating large shapes, which
are axi-symmetrical or prismatic in nature
such as bell-shaped or cylindrical.
 Types of Pattern
Skeleton Pattern
A skeleton of the pattern made of strips
of wood is used for building the final
pattern by packing sand around the
skeleton. After packing the sand, the
desired form is obtained with the help of
a strickle. This type of pattern is useful
generally for very large castings,
required in small quantities where large
expense on complete wooden pattern is
not justified.
Cooling Curve
 GATE-2016
Heat is removed from a molten metal of mass 2 kg
at a constant rate of 10 kW till it is completely
solidified. The cooling curve is shown in the figure.
Assuming uniform
temperature
throughout the
volume of the
metal during
solidification, the
latent heat of
fusion of the metal
(in KJ/kg) is
__________
Fluidity
The ability of a metal to flow and fill a mold is
known as fluidity.
Pouring Temperature
The most important controlling factor of fluidity is the
pouring temperature or the amount of superheat.
Higher the pouring temperature, the higher the fluidity.
Excessive temperatures should be avoided, however.
At high pouring temperatures, metal-mold reactions
are accelerated and the fluidity may be so great as to
permit penetration.
Penetration is a defect where the metal not only fills
the mold cavity but also fills the small voids between
the sand particles in a sand mold.
 Core
Used for making cavities and hollow
projections.

All sides of core are surrounded by the molten

metal and are therefore subjected to much
more severe thermal and mechanical
conditions and as a result the core sand
should be of higher strength than the
moulding sand.
 Desired characteristics of
a core
Green Strength: A core made of green sand
should be strong enough to retain the shape
till it goes for baking.
Dry Strength: It should have adequate dry
strength so that when the core is placed in the
mould, it should be able to resist the metal
pressure acting on it.
Refractoriness: Since in most cases, the
core is surrounded all around it is desirable
that the core material should have higher
refractoriness.
Contd
 Permeability: Gases evolving from the
molten metal and generated from the mould
may have to go through the core to escape
out of the mould. Hence cores are required to
have higher permeability.
Permeability Number: The rate of flow of air
passing through a standard specimen under a
standard pressure is termed as permeability
number.
The standard permeability test is to measure
time taken by a 2000 cu cm of air at a
pressure typically of 980 Pa (10 g/cm2), to
pass through a standard sand specimen
Then, the permeability number, R is obtained
by VH
R
pAT

Where V= volume of air = 2000 cm3

H = height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm
p = air pressure, g/cm2
A = cross sectional area of sand specimen =
20.268 cm2
T = time in minutes for the complete air to pass
through
501.28
R
Inserting the above standard
p.T values into
the expression, we get
Calculate the permeability number of sand if it
takes 1 min 25 s to pass 2000 cm3 of air at a
pressure of5 g/cm2 through the standard sample.

p 5.0 g / cm 2
T 1min 25 s 1.417 min
501.28
R 70.75
5 1.417
 IES 2007
What is permeability? Permeability is more
important in the basic process of sand casting
than porosity. Give one important reason for
this feature.

[2 marks]
Collapsibility: At the time of cooling, casting

shrinks, and unless the core has good

collapsibility (ability to decrease in size) it is likely

to provide resistance against shrinkage and thus

can cause hot tears.

 Friability: The ability to crumble should be

a very important consideration at the time of

removal.
Smoothness: Surface of the core should be

smooth for good finish to the casting.

Low Gas Emission
 Core Sands
Used clay free silica sand.

Binders used are linseed oil, core oil, resins,

dextrin, molasses, etc.

Core oils are mixtures of linseed, soy, fish and

petroleum oils and coal tar.

The general composition of a core sand
mixture could be core oil (1%) and water (2.5
to 6%).
 Carbon Dioxide
Moulding
Sodium silicate (water glass, SiO2:Na2O) is used as
a binder. This is essentially a quick process of core
or mould preparation.
The mould is prepared with a mixture of sodium
silicate and sand and then treated with carbon
dioxide for two to three minutes such that a dry
compressive strength of over 1.4 MPa is arrived.
The carbon dioxide is expected to form a weak
acid, which hydrolyses the sodium silicate resulting
in amorphous silica, which forms the bond.
The introduction of CO2 gas starts the reaction by
forming hydrated sodium carbonate (Na 2CO3 +
Contd
The compressive strength of the bond increases

with standing time due to dehydration.

Because of the high strength of the bond, the core

need not be provided with any other

reinforcements.
It does not involve any distortions due to baking

and also better dimensional accuracies are

achieved.
The sand mixture does not have good shelf life
 GATE 2008 (PI)
In sand casting of a hollow part of lead, a
cylindrical core of diameter 120 mm and height
180 mm is placed inside the mould cavity. The
densities of core material and lead are 1600
kg/m3 and 11,300 kg/m3 respectively. The net
force (in N) that tends to lift the core during
pouring of molten metal will be

(a) 19.7 (b) 64.5 (c) 193.7 (d) 257.6

 GATE-2014
An aluminium alloy (density 2600 ) casting is
to be produced. A cylindrical hole of 100 mm
diameter and 100 mm length is made in the
casting using sand core (density 1600 ). The
net buoyancy force (in Newton) acting on the
core is ..
 Moulding Sand Composition
Sand: Ordinary silica Sand (SiO2), zircon, or

olivine sands.
Clay: Acts as binding agents mixed to the

moulding sands

Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O),

and

Bentonite (Al2O3 4SiO2 H2O nH2O).

Water: Clay is activated by water.
 Other Additives
Cereal binder up to 2% increases the strength.

Pitch if used up to 3% would improve the hot

strength.
Saw dust up to 2% may improve the
collapsibility by slowly burning, and increase the
permeability.
Other materials: sea coal, asphalt, fuel oil,

graphite, molasses, iron oxide, etc.

 Moulding Sand Properties
Porosity or Permeability: Permeability or
porosity of the moulding sand is the measure of
its ability to permit air to flow through it.
Strength: It is defined as the property of
holding together of sand grains. A moulding
sand should have ample strength so that the
mould does not collapse or get partially
destroyed during conveying, turning over or
closing.
Refractoriness: It is the ability of the
moulding sand mixture to withstand the heat of
melt without showing any signs of softening or
Contd
Plasticity: It is the measure of the moulding sand
to flow around and over a pattern during ramming
and to uniformly fill the flask.
Collapsibility: This is the ability of the moulding
sand to decrease in volume to some extent under
the compressive forces developed by the shrinkage
of metal during freezing and subsequent cooling.
Adhesiveness: This is the property of sand mixture
to adhere to another body (here, the moulding
flasks). The moulding sand should cling to the sides
of the moulding boxes so that it does not fall out
when the flasks are lifted and turned over. This
property depends on the type and amount of binder
used in the sand mix.
 Other Sands
Facing sand: The small amount of
carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner
surface of the mold cavity to give a better
surface finish to the castings.
Backing sand: It is what constitutes most of
the refractory material found in the mould.
This is made up of used and burnt sand.
Green Sand: The molding sand that contains
moisture is termed as green sand. The green
sand should have enough strength so that the
constructed mould retains its shape.
Dry sand: When the moisture in the
 Grain size number
ASTM (American Society for Testing and
Materials) grain size number, defined as
N2
n-1

Where N is the number of grains per square

inch visible in a prepared specimen at 100X
and n is the ASTM grain-size number.
Low ASTM numbers mean a few massive
grains; high numbers refer to many small
grains.
Sand
Slinger
 Casting Yield
The casting yield is the proportion of the actual
casting mass, w, to the mass of metal poured
into the mould, W, expressed as a percentage.

w
Casting yield 100
W
Gating System

Contd
 Gating System
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity
at the top of the mould into which the molten
metal is poured.

Sprue: The passage through which the

molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches
the mould cavity. In many cases it controls the
flow of metal into the mould.

Contd
Runner: A runner is commonly a horizontal

channel which connects the sprue with gates,

thus allowing the molten metal to enter the
mould cavity. The runners are of larger cross-
section and often streamlined to slow down and
smooth out the flow, and are designed to
provide approximately uniform flow rates to the
various parts of the mould cavity. Runners are
commonly made trapezoidal in cross-section.
Contd
Ingate: A channel through which the molten
metal enters the mould cavity.
Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate
escape of air and gases.
 Types of Gate or In-gate
Top gate: Causes turbulence in the mould cavity, it
is prone to form dross, favourable temperature
gradient towards the gate, only for ferrous alloys.
Bottom gate: No mould erosion, used for very
deep moulds, higher pouring time, Causes
unfavourable temperature gradients.
Parting Gate: most widely used gate, easiest and
most economical in preparation.
Step Gate: Used for heavy and large castings, size
of ingates are normally increased from top to
 IES 2011
In light metal casting, runner should be so
designed that:
1. It avoids aspiration
2. It avoids turbulence
3. The path of runner is reduced in area so
that unequal volume of flow through each
gate
takes place
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
 The goals for the gating system
To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping
gasses into the mold
To get enough metal into the mold cavity
before the metal starts to solidify
To avoid shrinkage
Establish the best possible temperature
gradient in the solidifying casting so that the
shrinkage if occurs must be in the gating
system not in the required cast part.
Incorporates a system for trapping the non-
metallic inclusions.
 Types of Gating Systems
The gating systems are of two types:

Pressurized gating system

Un-pressurized gating system

 Pressurized Gating System
The total cross sectional area decreases
towards the mold cavity
Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions
in the metal flow
Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all
gates
Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration
as the sprue always runs full
Because of the restrictions the metal flows at
high velocity leading to more turbulence and
chances of mold erosion.
 Un-Pressurized Gating System
The total cross sectional area increases towards

the mold cavity

Restriction only at the bottom of sprue

Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all

gates
Aspiration in the gating system as the system

never runs full

Less turbulence.
 Sprue Design
Sprue: Sprue is the channel through which the molten
metal is brought into the parting plane where it enters the
runners and gates to ultimately reach the mould cavity.
The molten metal when moving from the top of the cope
to the parting plane gains in velocity and some low-
pressure area would be created around the metal in the
sprue.
Since the sand mould is permeable, atmospheric air
would be breathed into this low-pressure area which
would then be carried to the mould cavity.
To eliminate this problem of air aspiration, the sprue is
tapered to gradually reduce the cross section as it moves
away from the top of the cope as shown in Figure below
(b).
Contd
The exact tapering can be obtained by the equation of
continuity. Denoting the top and choke sections of The
sprue by the subscriptst and 'c' respectively, we get

Vc
A t Vt A c Vc At Ac
Vt
Contd
 Since the velocities are proportional to the
square of the potential heads, as can be
derived from Bernoulli's equation,

hc
At Ac
ht

Where H = actual
sprue height
and ht = h + H
 GATE-2007
A 200 mm long down sprue has an area of
cross section of 650 mm2 where the pouring
basin meets the down sprue (i.e. at the
beginning of the down sprue). A constant head
of molten metal is maintained by the pouring
basin. The Molten metal flow rate is 6.5 105
mm3/s. Considering the end of down sprue to
be open to atmosphere and an acceleration
due to gravity of 104mm/s2, the area of the
down sprue in mm2 at its end (avoiding
aspiration effect) should be
(a)650.0 (b)350.0 (c)290.7 (d)190.0
Contd
 Gating ratio
Gating ratio is defined as: Sprue area:
Runner area: Ingate area.
For high quality steel castings, a gating ratio

of 1: 2: 2 or 1: 2: 1.5 will produce castings

nearly free from erosion, will minimize
oxidation, and will produce uniform flow.
A gating ratio of 1: 4: 4 might favour the

formation of oxidation defects.

 Risers and Riser Design
Risers are added reservoirs designed to feed
liquid metal to the solidifying casting as a
means of compensating for solidification
shrinkage.
To perform this function, the risers must
solidify after the casting.
According to Chvorinov's rule, a good shape
for a riser would be one that has a long
freezing time (i.e., a small surface area per
unit volume).
Live risers (also known as hot risers) receive
the last hot metal that enters the mold and
 Chvorinovs rule
Total solidification time (ts) = B (V/A) n
where n = 1.5 to 2.0
[Where, B = mould constant and is a function of
(mould material, casting material, and
condition of casting]
n = 22 and triser 2= 1.25 tcasting
V V
or A 1.25
riser A casting

For cylinder V D2 H / 4
of diameter
D and
A DH 2 D2
4
Types of Risers
 IES 2011
The relationship between total freezing time
t, volume of the casting V and its surface
area A, according to Chvorinovs rule is :
V
(a) t k
A
A
(b) t k
V
2
A
(c ) t k
V
2
V
(d ) t k
A
Where K is a constant
 IES-1998
A spherical drop of molten metal of radius
2 mm was found to solidify in 10 seconds.
A similar drop of radius 4 mm would
solidify in

(a) 14.14 seconds

(b) 20 seconds

(c) 28.30 seconds

(d) 40 seconds
 GATE-2013 Same Question (PI)
A cube shaped casting solidifies in 5 min.
The solidification time in min for a cube of
the same material, which is 8 times
heavier than the original casting, will be

(a) 10 (b) 20 (c) 24 (d) 40

 GATE-2014 (PI)
For a given volume of a riser, if the
solidification time of the molten metal in
riser needs to be quadrupled, the surface
area of the riser should be made

(a) one-fourth (b) half

(c) double (d) four times

 GATE-2014
A cylindrical riser of 6 cm diameter and 6 cm
height has to be designed for a sand casting
mould for producing a steel rectangular plate
casting of 7 cm 10 cm 2 cm dimensions
having the total solidification time of 1.36
minute. The total solidification time (in minute)
of the riser is ..
 GATE-2003
With a solidification factor of 0.97 x 106
s/m2, the solidification time (in seconds) for
a spherical casting of 200 mm diameter is

(a) 539 (b) 1078 (c) 4311 (d) 3233

 IES-2006
According to Chvorinov's equation, the
solidification time of a casting is
proportional to:

(a) v2

(b) v
(c) 1/v

(d) 1/v2

Where, v = volume of casting

 GATE-2015
The solidification time of a casting is
proportional to (V/A)2 , where V is the
volume of casting and A is the total
casting surface area losing heat. Two
cubes of same material and size are cast
using sand casting process. The top face
of one of the cube is completely
insulated. The ratio of the solidification
time for the cube with top face insulated
 GATE-2016 (PI)
Two cast iron blocks P and Q, each of 500 mm length,
have the same cross-sectional area. Block P has
rectangular cross-section of 100 mm 200 mm. Block
Q is of square cross-section. Both P and Q were cast
under the same conditions with all their surfaces
enclosed within the mould. The solidification time of a
casting is proportional to the square of the ratio of its
volume to its surface area. The ratio of solidification
time of the block P to that of the block Q is ______
 GATE 2010 (PI)
Solidification time of a metallic alloy casting
is

(a) Directly proportional to its surface area

(b) Directly proportional to the specific heat

of the cast material
(c) Directly proportional to the thermal
diffusivity of the molten metal

(d)Inversely proportional to the pouring

 GATE-2016
Equal amount of a liquid metal at the same
temperature are poured into three moulds made of
steel, copper and aluminium. The shape of the cavity is
a cylinder with 15 mm diameter. The size of the moulds
are such that the outside temperature of the moulds do
not increase appreciably beyond the atmospheric
temperature during solidification. The sequence of
solidification in the mould from the fastest to slowest is
(Thermal conductivities of steel, copper and aluminium
are 60.5, 401 and 237 W/m-K, respectively.
Specific heats of steel, copper and aluminium are 434,
385 and 903 J/kg-K, respectively.
Densities of steel, copper and aluminium are 7854,
8933 and 2700 kg/m3, respectively.)
 GATE-2016
contd....
Densities of steel, copper and aluminium are
7854, 8933 and 2700 kg/m3, respectively.)
(a) Copper Steel Aluminium
(b) Aluminium Steel Copper
(c) Copper aluminium Steel
(d) Steel Copper Aluminium
 GATE-2007
Volume of a cube of side 'l' and volume of a sphere
of radius r are equal. Both the cube and the sphere
are solid and of same material. They are being cast.
The ratio of the solidification time of the cube to the
same of the sphere is:
3 6 2 2 3 2 4
4 r 4 r 4 r 4 r
a b c d
6 l 6 l 6 l 6 l
 GATE-2015
A cube and sphere made of cast iron (each
of volume 1000 cm3 ) were cast under
identical conditions . The time taken for
solidifying the cube was 4 s. The
solidification time (in s) for the sphere is
_______
 GATE -2011 (PI)
In a sand casting process, a sphere and a
cylinder of equal volumes are separately cast
from the same molten metal under identical
conditions. The height and diameter of the
cylinder are equal. The ratio of the solidification
time of the sphere to that of the cylinder is

(a) 1.14 (b) 0.87

(c) 1.31 (d) 0.76

 GATE-2009 (PI)
A solid cylinder of diameter D and height equal to D, and a
solid cube of side L are being sand cast by using the same
material. Assuming there is no superheat in both the cases,
the ratio of solidification time of the cylinder to the
solidification time of the cube is

(a) (L/D)2

(b) (2L/D)2

(c) (2D/L)2

(d) (D/L)2
 GATE-2015

Ratio of solidification time of a

cylindrical casting ( height = radius)
to that of a cubic casting of side two
times the height of cylindrical casting
is ____
 IES - 2012
The ratio of surface area of volume for a unit
volume of riser is minimum in case of

(a) Cylindrical riser

(b) Spherical riser

(c) Hemispherical riser

(d) Cuboids riser

 IES 2011 Conventional
A round casting is 20 mm in diameter and 50 mm in

length. Another casting of the same metal is

elliptical in cross section, with a major to minor axis
ratio of 2, and has the same length and cross-
sectional area as the round casting. Both pieces are
cast under the same conditions. What is the
difference in the solidification times of the two
castings ? [10 Marks]
Area of ellipse ab
Circumference 3 a b 3a b a 3b

2 a 2
b2 / 2 (approx.)
 Conventional Question
ESE 2003
Compare the solidification time of two optimum
side risers of the same volume with one has
cylindrical shape and other is parallopiped.
[30 Marks]
 GATE-2014
A cylindrical blind riser with diameter d and
height h, is placed on the top of the mold cavity
of a closed type sand mold as shown in the
figure. If the riser is of constant volume, then
the rate of solidification in the riser is the least
when the ratio h S:p dr u is
e b a s in
d

(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 R is e r h

(c) 1 : 4 (d) 4 : 1
M o ld c a v ity
 Modulus Method
It has been empirically established that if the

modulus of the riser exceeds the modulus of the

casting by a factor of 1.2, the feeding during
solidification would be satisfactory.

MR = 1.2 Mc
Modulus = volume/Surface area

In steel castings, it is generally preferable to

choose a riser with a height-to-diameter ratio of 1.

Contd
 D2
D2
4
Conventional Question IES-2008
Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and

diameter equal) necessary to feed a steel slab

casting of dimensions 30 x 30 x 6 cm with a side
riser, casting poured horizontally into the mould.

[Use Modulus Method]

[10 - Marks]
 GATE-2016
A cylindrical job with diameter of 200 mm
and height of 100 mm is to be cast using
modulus method of riser design. Assume
that the bottom surface of cylindrical riser
does not contribute as cooling surface. If
the diameter of the riser is equal to its
height, then the height of the riser (in mm)
is

(a) 150 (b) 200 (c) 100 (d) 125

 Caines Method
Freezing ratio = ratio of cooling characteristics of
V
casting to the riser.A
Casting
X
AV Riser

The riser should solidify last so x > 1

a
According to Caine X = c
Yb

Y = Vriser and a, b, c are constant.

Vcasting
Table: Constants in Caines Method
 Conventional Question IES-2007
Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser

(height and diameter equal) necessary to

feed a steel slab casting of dimensions 25 x
25 x 5 cm with a side riser, casting poured
horizontally into the mould.

[Use Caines Method]

[ For steel a = 0.10, b = 0.03 and c = 1.00 ]

 Naval Research Laboratory Method

This method is a simplification of Caine's

method. In this method, freezing ratio is
replaced by Shape Factor.
The shape factor is defined as
Shape Factor=
(Length+Width)/Thickness
The underlying argument is that
calculating volumes and surface areas is
too complicated and therefore
simplification would be desirable. The
length, width and thicknesses are
Procedure for getting riser size is as
follows:
1.Calculate the shape factor for the given casting.
2.Obtain riser volume to casting volume ratio
from the graph . (or the table provided in
questions)
3.Calculate riser volume Vr .
4.For cylindrical riser (h=D), Vr = (.D3 )/4
5.Obtain the diameter.

.For circular plates, the length and width are

same as that of the diameter.
.But for cylinders, the width and thickness are
same as the diameter for calculating the shape
The other shape of interest is hollow cylindrical
shape. In these the heat removal is restricted , a
correction factor k, needs to be applied to get the
effective plate thickness. If T is the true wall
thickness
Core 0.5T T 2T 4T
diameter
Correctio 1.17 1.14 1.02 1.00
n factor

Shape Factor = (Length+ width)/

(k.T)
 Example
Calculate the height of cylindrical
riser(height=diameter) necessary to feed the
steel slab casting 25 x 25 x 5 with a side riser,
casting poured horizontally into the mold.
Solution:
Shape Factor = (25+25)/5 = 10
From graph-1 at shape factor 10 (riser
volume/casting volume) is 0.47.
Riser Volume(Vr ) = (riser volume/casting volume) x
casting volume
Riser Volume = 0.47 x 25 x 25x 5 =1468.75 cm 3
For cylindrical riser of height = diameter
Vr = (.D3 )/4
1468.75= (.D3 )/4
 GATE-2015
The dimensions of a cylindrical side
riser(height = diameter) for a 25 cm x
15 cm x 5 cm steel casting are to be
determined. For the tabulated shape
factor values given below, the
diameter of the riser (in cm)________
Shape Factor 2 4 6 8 10 12

Riser volume / 1.0 0.70 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3

Casting Volume 5 0 0 5
Normally the risers are located at the heaviest sections and they
themselves act as feeders for thin sections. But when smaller
sections are connected to thicker sections, the riser should have
larger volume to cater this appendage.
The total volume of the casting is taken as the volume of the main
section plus the effective percentageGRAPH-
of the appendage volume,
called the parasitic volume. 2
 Example
Calculate the risering requirement for the
casting shown in fig.
First neglect the branch and calculate shape factor
for main plate ;
Shape Factor = (25+12.5)/5 = 7.5
From graph-1 at shape factor 7.5 (riser
volume/casting volume) is 0.47.
Riser Volume(Vr ) = (riser volume/casting volume) x
casting volume
Riser Volume = 0.575 x 25 x 12.5x 5 =898.437 cm 3
The branch Volume=2.5 x 2.5 x 10 =62.5cm 3
This is plate feeding the bar with thickness ratio
(2.5/5) of 0.5.
From the graph-2 we get parasitic volume of 30%
Hence, riser volume = 0.3 x 62.5 +
3
 Chills
External chills are masses of high-heat-capacity,
high-thermal-conductivity material that are placed in
the mould (adjacent to the casting) to accelerate the
cooling of various regions.
Chills can effectively promote directional
solidification or increase the effective feeding
distance of a riser. They can often be used to reduce
the number of risers required for a casting.
Internal chills are pieces of metal that are placed
within the mould cavity to absorb heat and promote
more rapid solidification. Since some of this metal will
melt during the operation, it will absorb not only the
heat-capacity energy, but also some heat of fusion.
Since they ultimately become part of the final casting,
 Cupola
Cupola has been the most widely used furnace
for melting cast iron.
In hot blast cupola, the flue gases are used to
preheat the air blast to the cupola so that the
temperature in the furnace is considerably higher
than that in a conventional cupola. Coke is fuel
and Lime stone (CaCO3) is mostly used flux.
Cost of melting low.
Main disadvantages of cupola is that it is not
possible to produce iron below 2.8% carbon.
Steel can be also prepared in cupola by
employing duplexing and triplexing operations.
 IES - 2012
Statement (I): Cupola furnace is not employed for
melting steel in foundry
Statement (II): The temperatures generated
within a cupola are not adequate for melting Steel
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true and Statement (II) is the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true but Statement (II) is not the
correct explanation of Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
 Electric Arc Furnace
For heavy steel castings, the

open-hearth type of furnaces

with electric arc or oil fired
would be generally suitable in
view of the large heat
required for melting.
Electric arc furnaces are more

suitable for ferrous materials

and are larger in capacity.
Crucible Furnace or Pot Furnace
Smaller foundries generally prefer the crucible
furnace.
The crucible is generally heated by electric
resistance or gas flame.
Induction Furnace
The induction furnaces are used for all types of
materials, the chief advantage being that the
heat source is isolated from the charge and the
slag and flux get the necessary heat directly
from the charge instead of the heat source.
 Ladles
Two types of ladles used in the pouring of
castings.
 Casting Cleaning (fettling)
Impurities in the molten metal are prevented from
reaching the mould cavity by providing a
(i) Strainer
(ii) Bottom well
(iii) Skim bob
 Pouring time
Time taken to fill the mould with top gate
Where A = Area of
A.H
mould t A
A g 2gh m H=
Height of mould
Ag = Area
of Gate
Hm = Gate
2A
height
tB
Ag 2g
hm hm H
Time taken to fill the mould with bottom gate
 GATE-2012 (PI)
A mould having dimensions 100 mm 90 mm 20 mm
is filled with molten metal through a gate as shown in
the figure. For height h and cross-sectional area A, the
mould filling time is t1. The height is now quadrupled
and the cross-sectional area is halved. The
corresponding filling time is t2. The ratio t2/t1 is
1
(a)
2
(b)1
(c ) 2
(d ) 2
 Expression for choke area
m
CA mm2
ct 2gH

Where m = mass of the casting, kg

= Density of metal, kg / m 3
t = pouring time
c = Efficiency factor and is the function of
gate system used
H = Effective head of liquid metal
= h for top gate

Contd
 hm
H=h- for bottom gate
2
hc2
=h- for parting line gate
2hm

hC
hm
hm hm

Top gale Parting line gate

top gate parting line gate
Parting line gate
bottom gate
 GATE-2016
The part of a gating system which
regulates the rate of pouring of
molten metal is
(a) Pouring basin (b) runner
(c) Choke (d) ingate
IES 2009
2 marks
 Casting Defects
The following are the major defects, which are
likely to occur in sand castings:
Gas defects

Shrinkage cavities

Molding material defects

Pouring metal defects

Mold shift.
 Gas Defects
A condition existing in a casting caused by the
trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold
gases evolved during the pouring of the casting.
The defects in this category can be classified
into blowholes and pinhole porosity.
Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities
present in the casting on the surface or inside
the casting.
Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of
hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during
heating of molten metal.
 Shrinkage Cavities
These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring
during the solidification of the casting.
To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid
metal is required. For this reason risers are placed
at the appropriate places in the mold.
Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached
in the proper location, causing shrinkage cavities.
It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid
shrinkage cavities.
Molding Material Defects
Cuts and washes,

Scab

Metal penetration,

Fusion, and

Swell
 Cut and washes
These appear as rough spots and areas of excess
metal, and are caused by erosion of molding sand
by the flowing metal.
This is caused by the molding sand not having
enough strength and the molten metal flowing at
high velocity.
The former can be taken care of by the proper
choice of molding sand and the latter can be
overcome by the proper design of the gating
system.
 Scab
This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a
mould lifts or breaks down and the recess thus
made is filled by metal.
When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas
may be disengaged with such violence as to
break up the sand, which is then washed away
and the resulting cavity filled with metal.
The reasons can be: - too fine sand, low
permeability of sand, high moisture content of
sand and uneven mould ramming.
 Metal penetration
When molten metal enters into the gaps between
sand grains, the result is a rough casting surface.
This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold
wash was applied on the surface of the mold. The
coarser the sand grains more the metal
penetration.
 Fusion
This is caused by the fusion of the sand

grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle,

glassy appearance on the casting surface.
The main reason for this is that the clay or

the sand particles are of lower refractoriness

or that the pouring temperature is too high.
 Swell
Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the
mold wall may move back causing a swell in the
dimension of the casting. A proper ramming of
the mold will correct this defect.

Inclusions
Particles of slag, refractory materials sand or
deoxidation products are trapped in the casting
during pouring solidification. The provision of
choke in the gating system and the pouring basin
at the top of the mold can prevent this defect
 Pouring Metal Defects
The likely defects in this category are
Mis-runs and
Cold shuts

A mis-run is caused when the metal is

unable to fill the mold cavity completely and
thus leaves unfilled cavities.
A cold shut is caused when two streams
while meeting in the mold cavity, do not fuse
together properly thus forming a discontinuity
in the casting.
Contd
The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused
either by a lower fluidity of the mold or when
the section thickness of the casting is very
small. Fluidity can be improved by changing
the composition of the metal and by increasing
the pouring temperature of the metal.
 Mold Shift
The mold shift defect occurs when cope and
drag or molding boxes have not been properly
aligned.
 Metallurgical defects
Hot tears or hot cracking, cause of this defect is
that stresses and strains built up during
solidification are too high compared to the actual
strength of the semisolid material. This type of
defects occurs in the lower part of the solidification
range, close to the solidus, when the alloy has a
wide solidification temperature range and a small
amount of liquid, when the solid fraction is more
than 0.9, the hot tearing is easy to occur. Proper
mould design prevents this type of defect.
Hot spots are areas on the surface of casting that
become very hard because they cooled more
quickly than the surrounding material.
 Cast Aluminium Code
Four digit identification system
First digit indicates alloy group
1 Aluminium, 99% or more
2 copper
3 Silicon, with copper and/or magnesium
4 silicon
5 magnesium
6 not used
7 zinc
8 tin
9 other elements
 Cast Aluminium Code Contd..

Second two digits identify the aluminium alloy

or indicate the aluminium purity.
The last digit is separating from the other three
by a decimal point and indicates the product
form; that is, castings or ingots
A modification of the original alloy is indicated
by a serial letter before the numerical
designation.
Alloy A514.0 indicates an aluminium alloy
casting with magnesium as the principal alloy.
One modification to the original alloy has made,
as indicated by the letter A.
 IES 2011
In the designation of Aluminium casting A514.0
indicates :
(a) Aluminium purity
(b) Aluminium content
(c) Percentage of alloy element
(d) Magnesium Content

Ans. (d)