MMPE 290

Introduction to Mining & Mineral Process

Engineering
Mining Geology and Exploration
Mining Geology and Exploration

How much metal is available?

What is a mineral? What is ore?
How do ore deposits form?
Mining exploration methods
Role of exploration in mining
Case histories
Economically Important
Metal
Concentrations
Concentration
in Earths
Crust
Metal (% by weight)
Aluminum 8.0 Note for
Iron 5.8 comparison:
Copper 0.0058 Silicon 28%
Nickel 0.0072 Oxygen 46%
Zinc 0.0082
Uranium 0.00016
Lead 0.001
Silver 0.000008
Gold 0.0000002
What is a mineral?
A solid naturally-occurring compound
having a definite chemical
composition
Examples:
quartz - SiO2 (an oxide)
hematite - Fe2O3 (another oxide)
covelite - CuS (a sulphide)
What is an ore deposit?

An occurrence of minerals or
metals in sufficiently high
concentration to be profitable to
mine and process using current
technology and under current
economic conditions.
What is ore grade?
Ore grade is the concentration
of economic mineral or metal in
an ore deposit.
Weight percentage (base
metals)
Grams/tonne or oz/ton
(precious metals)
Economically Important
Metals
Typical GradesTypical
of OreGrade
DepositsMetal (% by weight)
Aluminum 30
Iron 53
Copper 0.5-4
Nickel 1
Zinc 4
Uranium 0.3
Lead 5
Silver 0.01
Gold 0.0001-0.001
What does it take to be
an ore deposit?
2
10
Iron
Aluminum
1
10
Lead Zinc
Typical Orebody Concentration

Copper
0
10 Nickel
Uranium
-1
y=x
10

-2
10 Silver

-3
10
Gold
-4
10
-7 -5 -3 -1 1 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Crustal Concentration
Hydrothermal Ore
Deposits
As magma cools, more abundant
metals (silicon, aluminum) deposit
first
Solidification of magma releases
water - a hydrothermal solution
Minerals precipitate from
hydrothermal solution and deposit in
cracks or veins in rock
Metamorphic Ore
Deposits
Concentration of minerals caused by
high temperatures and pressures
near intrusions
Examples:
Lead-zinc deposits in southeast
B.C.
Diamonds
Garnets
Hydrothermal and
Metamorphic Ore
Deposits
Geyser or hot spring

Hydrothermal solutions
entering veins in rocks Ore deposit
zoning

Alteration of rocks by
heat and pressure

Intrusion
Sedimentary Ore Deposits
Deposition of dense, resistant
minerals in streams, lakes etc
(Alluvial Deposits), e.g. Placer
gold
Precipitation of minerals from
ancient oceans (Evaporite Deposits),
e.g. Potash and salt deposits
Accumulation, burial and
petrification of vegetation, e.g. Coal
Deposits.
Exploration Methods

Remote sensing
Geological mapping
Geophysical surveys
Geochemical surveys
Bulk sampling
Drilling (core or destructive)
Airborne Geophysics

Helicopter

Bush

Cable

Bird
GEOPHYSICAL
METHODS
Geochemical Anomalies
DIAMOND DRILL
DIAMOND DRILL
HOLE SIZES
SURFACE SET
DIAMOND DRILL
CORE BIT AND
REAMING SHELL
Senior Mining Company
Exploration Expenditures - 1997

Total: $817.7M
Junior Mining Company
Exploration Expenditures - 1997
Total: $262.2M
Role of Exploration
Each ton of ore mined must be
replaced with another ton to
continue business.
The alternative to exploration is
acquisition of mining properties.
Exploration has a high failure rate,
but this should not affect a
diversified mining company.
Exploration costs are tax-
deductible.
Diamonds in Canada?
Diamonds are formed at high
pressure deep in the earth and
transported to surface in kimberlite
pipes
Other minerals also formed if
pressures high enough - indicator
minerals
Indicator minerals are mobile and
easily transported by erosion.
An eroded kimberlite pipe
Direction of glacier flow

Indicator minerals

Kimberlite pipe
Lac de Gras
The Ekati Mine
Recommended Reading

Fire into Ice

Charles Fipke and the
Great Diamond Hunt
by Vernon Frolick
Raincoast Press
Nevada Gold
Formed 30-50 million years ago by
hydrothermal activity in sedimentary
rocks
Part of a large mineralized zone
extending into Mexico and Central
America
Carlin, Bootstrap, Cortez, Gold Acres
Some deposits low grade but can
now be processed using heap leach
technology
South American Ore
Deposits
Volcanic and igneous activity in
Andes produces a variety of rich
mineral deposits
Minerals are exposed at or very near
the surface - leads to oxidation
requiring different kinds of mineral
processing
Transport of mineral products, power
and water supply a concern in high
Andes