WELCOME ALL

BY
FOTRONICHS
VELLORE
ELECTRICITYCANBEBROKEN
DOWNINTO:

I. VOLTAGE
II. CURRENT
VOLTAGE
theamountofpotentialenergybetweentwopointson
acircuit.
One point has more charge than another. This
differenceinchargebetweenthetwopointsiscalled
voltage.
It is measured in volts, which, technically, is the
potential energy difference between two points that
will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of
charge that passes through it (dont panic if this
makesnosense,allwillbeexplained).
CURRENT

Currentistherateatwhichelectric
chargeflowspastapointinacircuit.In
otherwords,currentistherateofflowof
electriccharge.
Theflowofelectronsinacircuitiscalled
current
Theunitofcurrentisampsoramperage
DIRECTCURRENT:
Circuitsthatarepoweredbybattery
sourcesaretermeddirectcurrent
circuits.
Thisisbecausethebatterymaintains
thesamepolarityofoutputvoltage.
Theplusandminussidesremain
constant.
Waveform of DC Voltage
 ALTERNATINGCURRENT:
An alternating voltage source periodically
alternates or reverses in polarity.
The resulting current, therefore,
periodically reverses in direction.
The power outlet in your home is 60 cycle
ac - meaning the voltage polarity and
current direction go through 60 cycles of
reversal per second.
All audio signals are AC also.
Waveform of AC Voltage
Comparison of DC & AC
DC Voltage AC Voltage

Fixed polarity Reverses polarity

Can be steady or vary in Varies in magnitude

magnitude between reversals in
polarity
Steady value cannot be Used for electrical power
stepped up or down by a distribution
transformer
Electrode voltage for tube I/O signal for tube and
and transistor amps transistor amps
Easier to measure Easier to amplify

Heating Effects the same for both AC and DC current

Power
The unit of electrical power is the watt.
Power is how much work is done over time.
One watt of power is equal to the work done in
one second by one volt moving one coulomb of
charge. Since one coulomb a second is an
ampere:
Power in watts = volts x amperes
P=ExI
 RESISTORS
a device that is used to control
the flow of electricity in an
electriccircuit

Values specified in ohms (),

kiloohms (K), or megaohms
(M)

Marked with value using a color

code
11
 RESISTORHANDLINGAND
INSTALLATION
Resistorsarenotpolarizedandmaybeinstalledin
eitherdirection.

ResistorsarenotgenerallysusceptibletoESD
damage,sospecialprecautionsarenotrequired.

Mechanicalstressduetoleadbendingshouldbe
minimized.

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 CAPACITORS
a device giving capacitance and usually consisting
of conducting plates or foils separated by thin
layers of dielectric (as air or mica) with the plates
onoppositesidesofthedielectriclayersoppositely
charged by a source of voltage and the electrical
energyofthechargedsystemstoredinthepolarized
dielectric
Values specified in microfarads (F) or picofarads
(pF)
Markedwithactualvalueoranumericcode
Somevarietiesare+/polarized
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 Capacitor types

Ceramic disk Monolithic ceramic Dipped siver-mica Mylar Mylar

Ceramic disk
Monolithic ceramic
Dipped silvered-mica
Mylar or polyester
Aluminum electrolytic
(+/-)
Tantalum (+/-)
Solid tantalum, polarized Radial aluminum electrolytic Axial aluminum electrolytic

14
Capacitor handling and
installation
Most capacitors are not polarized and may be
installedineitherdirection.

Electrolytic capacitors ARE polarized and

MUST be installed with proper polarity, else
catastrophicfailure!

CapacitorsarenotgenerallysusceptibletoESD
damage,sospecialprecautionsarenotrequired.

Mechanicalstressduetoleadbendingshouldbe
minimized.
15
 DIODES:
an electronic device that has two electrodes or
terminalsandisusedespeciallyasarectifier
Mostmoderndiodesaresemiconductordevices,
but are considered passive since they do not
contributeanyamplificationorgaintoacircuit.

Anode cathode
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 DIODETYPES
Maybeclassifiedbysemiconductormaterial
silicon,germanium,galliumarsenide,etc.
Orclassifiedbycircuitfunction

Small signal detector or switching diode Rectifier diode

Light-emitting diode (LED)

17
 DIODERATINGS
Peakinversevoltage(PIV)

Maximumforwardcurrent(IF)

Maximumforwardvoltagedrop(VF)

Reverseleakagecurrent(IR)

18
 Transistors

asolidstateelectronicdevicethatis
usedtocontroltheflowofelectricity
in electronic equipment and usually
consists of a small block of a
semiconductor (as germanium) with
atleastthreeelectrodes.
Three terminal devices
manufactured in a variety of
packagestyles.
Can you find the three terminals of
this,theveryfirsttransistor?
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 Terminal Designations and
packaging styles
Collector

Base
Emitter

2N2222 in a 2N2222A in a
Drain TO-92 package TO-18 package

Gate 2SC2078 in a
Source TO-220 package

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TRANSISTORHANDLINGANDINSTALLATION

Transistors are polarized and must be installed

inwithcorrectorientation.

MostBJTtransistorsaremodestlysusceptibleto
ESDdamage,sonormalESDprecautionsshould
betaken.

MOSFET (IGFET) transistors are very

susceptible to ESD damage, so rigorous
precautionsshouldbetaken.

Mechanicalstressduetoleadbendingshouldbe
minimized.
21
 INTEGRATEDCIRCUITS
Integratedcircuits(ICs)aremultiterminal
devicesthatprovideanarrayoffunctionsand
applicationsfartonumeroustolisthere.

22
PINIDENTIFICATIONAND
NUMBERINGCONVENTION
Pins are numbered
sequentially in a Pin 8
Pin 14
counterclockwise
direction.
Pin 1 is often Notch

identifiedwithadotor Dimple
adimple. Pin 1
Pin 7
The pin 1 end of the
chip is often identified
withanotch.
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ICHANDLINGANDINSTALLATION
ICs are polarized and must be installed with
correct orientation. Observe pin 1 location on
socketsorcircuits.

Treat all ICs as if they are very susceptible to

ESD damage (very many actually are), so
rigorousprecautionsshouldbetaken.

Leadsgenerallyshouldnotbebent.

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POWERSUPPLY:
All electronic circuits need a power source to
work.
For electronic circuits made up of transistors
and/or ICs, this power source must be a DC
voltageofaspecificvalue.
A battery is a common DC voltage source for
some types of electronic equipment especially
portableslikecellphonesandiPods.
Mostnonportableequipmentusespowersupplies
thatoperatefromtheACpowerlinebutproduce
oneormoreDCoutputs.
POWERSUPPLYBLOCK
DIAGRAM:
TRANSFORMER

Electrical power transformer is a static device which

transforms electrical energy from one circuit to another
withoutanydirectelectricalconnectionandwiththehelp
ofmutualinductionbetweentwowindings.Ittransforms
power from one circuit to another without changing its
frequencybutmaybeindifferentvoltagelevel.
The working principle of transformer is very simple. It
depends upon Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. Actually, mutual induction between two or
morewindingisresponsiblefortransformationactionin
anelectricaltransformer.
 The winding which takes electrical power from the
source, is generally known as primary winding of
transformer. Here in our above example it is first
winding.
Thewindingwhichgivesthedesiredoutputvoltagedue
to mutual induction in the transformer, is commonly
knownassecondarywindingoftransformer.Hereinour
exampleitissecondwinding.
RECTIFIER
rectification. Simply defined, rectification is
the conversion of alternating current (AC) to
directcurrent(DC).Thisinvolvesadevicethat
onlyallowsonewayflowofelectrons.Aswe
have seen, this is exactly what a
semiconductor diode does. The simplest kind
ofrectifiercircuitisthehalfwaverectifier.
Types:
Halfwaverectifier
Fullwaverectifier
Bridgerectifier
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

Thesimplestformofrectifieristhe
halfwaverectifiershown.
Onlythetransformer,rectifier
diode,andload(RL)areshown
withoutthefilterandother
components.
Thehalfwaverectifierproduces
onesinepulseforeachcycleofthe
inputsinewave.
Whenthesinewavegoespositive,
theanodeofthediodegoes
positivecausingthediodetobe
forwardbiased.Thediode
conductsandactslikeaclosed
switchlettingthepositivepulseof
thesinewavetoappearacrossthe
loadresistor.
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

The full wave rectifier circuit

consists of two power diodes
connected to a single load
resistance (RL) with each diode
takingitinturntosupplycurrentto
the load. When point A of the
transformerispositivewithrespect
topointC,diodeD1conductsinthe
forward direction as indicated by
thearrows.
When point B is positive (in the
negative half of the cycle) with
respect to point C, diode D2
conducts in the forward direction
and the current flowing through
resistor R is in the same direction
forbothhalfcycles.
BRIDGERECTIFIER
Anotherwidelyusedrectifieristhe
bridgerectifier.Itusesfourdiodes.
Thisiscalledafullwaverectifier
asitproducesanoutputpulsefor
eachhalfcycleoftheinputsine
wave.
Onthepositivehalfcycleofthe
inputsinewave,diodesD1andD2
areforwardbiasedsoactasclosed
switchesappearinginserieswith
theload.
Onthenegativehalfcycle,diode
D1andD2arereversebiasedand
diodesD3andD4areforward
biasedsocurrentflowsthroughthe
loadinthesamedirection.
FILTER
Capacitorfilter:
 FILTER:
InthistypeacapacitorCisconnected
inshuntwithloadresistorR.
Capacitor acts as open circuit for dc.
Therefore direct current passes
throughtheload.
Capacitor provides lowreactance
pathtotheaccomponentsofcurrent.
ACgetsbypassedtotheground.Only
a small part of the ac component
passes through the load producing a
smallripplevoltage.
When the rectifier output is
increasing, the capacitor charges to
thepeakvoltageVp.
Whentherectifiervoltagebecomes
slightlylessthanVp,thecapacitor
startstodischargethroughtheload
(pointB).
Thispreventstheloadvoltagefrom
falling to zero. The capacitor
discharges until the rectifier
voltage becomes more than the
capacitorvoltage(pointC).
The capacitor again charges to the
peak value Vp. The current is
maintainedthroughtheloadallthe
time.
REGULATOR-7805
 Aswehavepreviouslytalkedaboutthatregulatedpowersupply
is a device that mechanized on DC voltages and also it can
uphold its output accurately at a fixed voltage all the time
although if there is a significant alteration in the DC input
voltage.
ICsregulatorismainlyusedinthecircuittomaintaintheexact
voltage which is followed by the power supply. A regulator is
mainlyemployedwiththecapacitorconnectedinparalleltothe
inputterminalandtheoutputterminaloftheICregulator.
Forthecheckingofgiganticalterationsintheinputaswellasin
theoutputfilter,capacitorsareused.Whilethebypasscapacitors
areusedtocheckthesmallperiodspikesontheinputandoutput
level.Bypasscapacitorsaremainlyofsmallvaluesthatareused
tobypassthesmallperiodpulsesstraightlyintotheEarth.
POWER SUPPLY DIAGRAM:

POWER SUPPLY DESIGN

TR1
BR1
U1
7805
AC SUPPLY 230V/50Hz
1 3 R1
VI VO

GND
C1 100
BRIDGE 1000u
TRAN-2P2S

2
D1
LED-GREEN

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