Evolution and Natural Selection

I have called this principle, by

which each slight variation, if
useful, is preserved, by the term
Natural Selection.
Charles Darwin in The Origin of
Species. Chap. iii.
 Evolution by Natural Selection

Evolution, natural selection, Charles Darwin and survival of the fittest are
now common terms heard not only in high school or university classrooms but
in everyday households around the globe. What do these terms mean to you?
This familiarity is understandable considering that Darwins theory of
evolution was not only one of the most controversial of the nineteenth
century, but also one of the most important as it attempted to answer one of
the most baffling questions of all time where do the variety of living things
originate from?
After 150 years, aspects of evolution by natural selection are still under
debate in the scientific community due to the nature of Science to continually
question in order to continually gain knowledge.
Many religious academic institutions across the United States refuse to
teach evolution and many outright attack it in favour of creationism.
So who was Darwin, what did he propose, and what modern day evidence do
we have both for and against evolution by natural selection?
 The Wallace Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection

I published an essay in I was born in Wales and

1855 entitled On the had no formal education
Law which has but was a keen naturalist
Regulated the all my life. As a young man
Introduction of New I taught in a school until
Species which my mid 20s before I took
attracted little notice off in 1848 - on a
from the scientific specimen collecting trip to
community other than the Amazon. Unfortunately
from one fellow named all my notes and specimens
Charles Darwin. were destroyed. I
travelled again in 1854,
this time to Indonesia on a
trip that lasted 8 yrs.

http://www.physics.hku.hk/~tboyce/ss/assignments/ascent/wallace.html
 The Wallace Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection
After more study I attempted to explain the variety in species by
suggesting the theory of Natural Selection I didnt know that Darwin had
independently come to the same conclusions as I. In 1858 I published, an
essay entitled On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from
the Original Type which I sent to Darwin for his opinion. He was taken
aback by the coincidence that by studying the natural world, we had both
reached the same conclusions about the origin of different organisms.

Our two papers were read at the Linnean Society in

1858. Darwin was such an excellent naturalist that I
wrote a book Darwinism (1889) on his theories.

The theory of Natural Selection states that organisms

with low relative fitness (ability to survive within a
certain set of conditions) are reduced in number within a
population as they are least likely to survive.
http://www.auburn.edu/academic/classes/zy/0301/Topic1/Topic1.htm
 The Darwin Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection
In 1831, at 22, I set sail with the Beagle (my Uncle Wedgwood of
pottery fame- helped fund my trip) under Captain Fitzroy. As the Captain
was not allowed to socialize with his staff, I suspect I was invited on
board to keep him company and stop him from going mad like the
previous captain. We sailed to South America. When we landed I hired
locals to assist me in collecting many specimens new to science, including
many fascinating fossils.

I first conceived my ideas of Natural Selection, the

struggle for survival when visiting the Galapagos
Islands. I noticed that individuals better suited to
their environment survived at a greater rate than
those who were less suited. Natural Selection is the
process by which some individuals are more
reproductively successful than others and hence
disproportionally pass on their characteristics into
the next generation.
http://www.darwinday.org/museum/credits.html
 The Darwin Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection
In 1859 I published
From my observations on the
my book Origin of
Beagle trip as well as studies
species by means of
made in England on the
natural selection, or
breeding of pigeons, my book
the preservation of
virtually became an explanation
favoured races in the
for life on Earth. I was very
struggle for life,
defensive in my arguments.
otherwise known as
Predicting a backlash I tried
The Origin of
to find scientific evidence for
Species. I felt that it
any counter argument that may
wasnt quite finished,
be proposed post publication. I
but Alfred Wallace
argued that if natural
had come to the same
selection acted upon a species
conclusions as I and I
long enough, that species could
felt the pressure to
actually become a new species.
publish my findings
extensively.
http://www.eeb.lsa.umich.edu/logo.asp
 The Darwin Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection
2. Not all individuals survive to reproduce for those that dont,
their individual characteristics are removed from the population.

3. The organisms that

1. There is variation
survive to reproduce are
within a species; i.e.
generally well adapted to
some individuals are
the environment in which
taller, faster,
they live. They survive more
brighter coloured,
easily and are said to be
have a different
naturally selected for.
shaped beak.

4. As the favourable
I made 4 characteristics are the ones
observations on passed on to offspring of the
which I based the next generation they become
Theory of Natural more common in the population.
selection.
http://www.eeb.lsa.umich.edu/logo.asp
 The Darwin Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection
Even though when writing The Origin of Species I took great care to
provide a surplus of examples for evolution by Natural Selection, there was
still a great deal of backlash from the scientific community. Many still
thought each species was created separately, or independently, rather
than evolving slowly over time due to each organism being selected for by
nature with regards to their natural variety. Many were even aware that
farmers select (as nature does) the better qualities of their stock in
order to improve it. I was mocked in public yet was too ill to defend myself.

Why did everyone wish

to believe we evolved
from monkeys, rather
than my proposal that
we evolved, like the
monkey, from a common
ancestor?
http://www.eeb.lsa.umich.edu/logo.asp
http://www.darwinday.org/museum/credits.html
 The Darwin Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection
As I predicted, over the years and long after my death, scientists have
used the fossil record to accumulate a great deal of evidence in support
of evolution by natural selection. In my day very little was understood
regarding genetics, which has also provided evidence in support of my
theory. The theory of evolution is now generally accepted even though
there is still some gaps in the fossil record.

In 1885 my good
friend Thomas
Huxley (who
publicly defended
evolution on my
behalf) unveiled my
statue at the
Natural History
Museum in London.
http://www.eeb.lsa.umich.edu/logo.asp
http://www.darwinday.org/museum/credits.html
 Evolution and the Physical Environment
Evolution by natural selection can be influenced by the physical
environment in which the species lives.
Changes in the physical conditions and factors in the environment such as
water availability, temperature, wind speed and direction, amount of
sunlight can determine the evolution of plants and animals.
The change in physical conditions can be gradual. For example, the
movement of Australia north after the breakup of Gondwana changed
weather conditions. Organisms had to adapt to a drier climate or face
extinction. The Australian desert hoping mouse Notomys alexis has adapted
to living in arid conditions in many ways. It conserves water by producing
concentrated urine, metabolizes much of its own water, has a low metabolic
rate, is inactive during the day and burrows during the day. Similar animals
living in non-arid conditions have developed non of these adaptations.
The change in physical conditions can also be sudden. Organisms living in a
changing habitat must be able to adapt in order to survive there.
 Evolution and the Chemical Environment

Evolution by natural selection can be influenced by the chemical

environment in which the species lives.
Chemical conditions, such as salinity, iron concentration, toxins and food
nutrient content can vary greatly from one environment to another and
organisms have adapted to live in such places.
Example 1 - when rabbits became a pest across Australia, the
myxomatosis virus was introduced in order to kill them off. Some rabbits
had an immunity to the virus and survived to reproduce and produce more
resistant rabbits. The species hence survived a sudden dramatic chemical
change.
Example 2 - plants adapt to salty environments by using a multitude of
processes. They can block the uptake of ions, or use active transport to
pump ions out.
 Evolution and Competition

Competition for resources occurs between species living within an

ecosystem.
Darwin was aware that population size played an important role in survival
for species competing for limited resources such as food, shelter or
mates.
Two or more species in constant competition may result in one or more of
the species either being eliminated or forced to occupy a different
habitat. As a result of a species changing habitat it has to evolve with
similar but slightly different resources.
Native Australian honey bees and feral honey bees have existed together
in Australia for abut 150 years. They are in constant competition for
nesting sites and flowers from which to take nectar. In order to adapt to
the competition they have had to forage further a field.
 Evolutionary Divergence
The gradual formation of a number of different species (or varieties) from
a common ancestor that have adapted to a different ecological niche is
known as evolutionary divergence or adaptive radiation.
One species gives rise to other organisms that are different because they
have somehow become isolated from the original population and have needed
to adapt to a new/different environment through evolution.
Organisms can become different due to:
geographical isolation (sea levels rise and separate landmasses,
continents drift apart)
competition for resources (population might increase so much that
some individuals change their niche ie nectar feeding birds become
insect eaters and develop shorter/tougher beaks)
Extinct Many
Species descendant
Ancestral Divergence species
Species
Time
 Evolutionary Divergence

Classic example of evolutionary divergence: Darwins finches :

Darwin thought that the original variety of finch that arrived on the
Galapagos Islands were so well adapted that they flourished in number.
Due to the large numbers, pressure on the birds forced them to expand
their niches. Some became seed eaters with strong beaks, some had
curved beaks for reaching into flowers for the nectar, and others formed
long slender beaks for catching insects. Darwin believed the 13 species of
finchs found on the Islands were derived from one common ancestor.
Another example: the fossil record suggests the first primitive placental
mammal appears 58 million years ago. Among these was the Credodonta
that diverged into a number of carnivores including marine mammals such
as the whales and dolphins.
Evolutionary Divergence

www.rit.edu/.../GalapagosPages/ SlideShow/SlidePages/Darwin
 Evolutionary Convergence

When species that are not necessarily closely related share a similar physical
environment, they can acquire adaptations that help them survive better in
that particular environment. This is called evolutionary convergence.
An example is the development of wings in vertebrates and insects that
occurred separately by two different lines of organisms who sought to adapt
to life in the air (note the bat and bird are not examples of convergence as
they both formed from the same ancestor with 5 digit fingers).
 Support for Evolution - Palaeontology
Palaeontologists have been studying fossils for many years and have noted
that preserved remains of some organisms are not only similar in structure to
ones currently living, but similar to other extinct organisms found in the fossil
record.
The fossil record provides a time line of evolution due to the oldest fossils
being found in rocks lower in rock layers with the youngest fossils found in the
upper layers. Due to changes in geography over time, it is not always possible to
compare different sites, but scientists can compare fossils within the same
site.
Fossils that can be compared to others in an attempt to indicate the
evolutionary development of one group of organisms to another, or from a
variety of groups of organisms to a common ancestor are called transitional
fossils or transitional forms.
One of the most famous transitional fossils is the Archaeopteryx. It has
features of reptiles such as teeth and a solid skeleton, as well as features of
of birds such as a wishbone and feathers. This provides evidence of an
evolutionary path from dinosaurs to birds.
 Support for Evolution - Palaeontology

http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~bio336/Bio336/Lectures/Lecture5/Overheads.html
 Support for Evolution - Biogeography
The study of the distribution of living things is called biogeography.
We know that certain types of organisms are only found in certain areas and
not in others Australia is classic example as it harbours many unique
species, many of which have become national symbols. The unique flora and
fauna on the Australian continent is thought to be due to the long term
isolation of the land mass after the breakup of Gondwana.
Alfred Wallace attempted to draw lines on maps (the Wallace lines) to show
the distribution of different organisms.
With the patterns of distribution of an organism today, as well as its fossil
distribution in the past, scientists are able to reconstruct its evolutionary
history.
Example: the fossil evidence indicates that marsupials originated in South
America as well as Australia when the countires were once connected. The
Waratah can also be found in South America and Australia. This supports the
theory that these organisms evolved from an ancestral species within a
particular geographical region.
 Support for Evolution
Comparative Embryology
The study of the differences and similarities
in embryonic development between different
organisms is called comparative embryology.
Many species of fish, amphibians, birds,
reptiles and mammals show greater similarity
as embryos than they do as fully formed
adults.
By comparing embryos, scientist can link
related species and assist the search for a
common ancestor.
Example: all vertebrates have gill slits (or
gill arches, as they are not really slits) when
they are embryos but they only develop
through to adulthood in fish. This indicates a
fundamental stage in the early development
of vertebrates that represents the proposal http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~blase/image044.jpg

of a common ancestor.
 Support for Evolution
Comparative Anatomy
The study of the differences and similarities in PENTYDACTYL STRUCTURES
structure between different organisms is called
comparative anatomy.
Vertebrates can often be more easily grouped
together by comparing their anatomy than by
comparing their outer structure due to ambiguity
caused by body covering and shape and function of
various body parts. Wings, hands, paws and flippers
in birds, bats, mammals, reptiles and amphibians are
limbs that consist of similar basic pentadactyl
skeletal structures that have been adapted for
different functions. They are therefore known as
homologous structures.
The whale and snake have skeletal vestiges of back
limbs that are buried under their skin which are the
remains of hind legs. Vestiges are remodeled
structures that have reduced or no current function.
Can you think of some human vestiges?http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~bio336/Bio336/Lectures/Lecture5/Overheads.html
 Support for Evolution Biochemistry
1. Comparing amino acid sequence
Comparing particular molecules across species provides further evidence of relatedness
and common ancestry.
Before the use of biotechnology, molecular comparison of organisms was not possible.
Now, biochemical evidence continues to expand and support the theory of evolution and
common ancestry.
Amino acid and DNA (nucleotide) sequences can be compared across species. The most
related species have the most sequences matching.
Cytochrome C molecules are proteins that are involved in cellular respiration something
that takes place in all living things. By comparing the nucleotide sequence of cytochrome C
scientists can quantify the number of differences between living things. Those most
closely related have less difference.
For the organisms that possess it, the protein haemoglobin is relatively well preserved
across species so its sequence of amino acids can be used to compare species that are
already known to be quite closely related. This is a more sensitive method than using a
protein common to all living things. For example humans and rhesus monkeys have only 8
amino acids from about 300 sequences different compared to humans and lampreys - 125.
Other proteins such as hormones can also be compared, as well as base pair sequences in
RNA.
 Support for Evolution Biochemistry
2. Comparing Blood Plasma

By comparing the compatibility of blood plasma of different

animals when mixed together, scientists can also identify how
similar they are. Mixing the blood shows the compatibility of the
antigen-antibody reaction. If there is a small reaction, ie the
blood samples dont recognize each other as totally foreign, then
the animals are more closely related.
 Support for Evolution Biochemistry
3. Comparing Base Pair Sequence in DNA
Scientists can use a technique called DNA Hybridisation to compare
similarities between DNA molecules from different species. This is how;
DNA from species A & species B is isolated from the nucleus and placed in a
test tube.
The DNA is heated so that the two strands break apart. This is called
denaturation and occurs when the hydrogen bonds that form the rungs of the
DNA ladder break. After denaturation four single strands of DNA are mixed
up in the test tube two species A strands & two species B strands.
Slowly cool the DNA and its bases will pair/reanneal - the hydrogen bonds
reform so that the rungs of the DNA return it to its ladder appearance.
Some of the single DNA from species A will randomly pair with species A again
(as it was originally), but some will also randomly pair with species B. If species
B is similar to species A, many of the bases will pair showing high compatibility
of the DNA.
If species A and species B are not closely related then less of the bases will
pair showing low compatibility of the DNA.
 Support for Evolution Biochemistry
3. Comparing Base Pair Sequence in DNA
Heat added (or change in pH)
so that DNA denatures

High
Low
compatibility
compatibility

Species A Species B DNA

plus cooled
DNA DNA

or or
Species A
and B DNA Species A and
reanneals B DNA strands
with itself hybridize
together
Moderate
compatibility
 Punctuated Equilibrium
In 1972 the idea of punctuated equilibrium was put forward by Eldridge
and Gould who noted in the fossil record that some species remained the
same for millions of years and others seemed to appear or disappear
relatively rapidly.
They proposed that there were long periods of time where some species
remained relatively unchanged while others underwent relatively rapid
change. These short bursts of change that were interspersed amongst
the long periods with little change is known as punctuated equilibrium.
Punctuated equilibrium was in contrast to Darwins gradualism that
states evolutionary change was gradual. This is a current debate that
exists due to the lack of evidence still occurring from the fossil record.
The only organisms that can be studied are those with hard parts!
An example of punctuated equilibrium is the rapid evolution of mammals
(~100 families in 30 million years) compared to bivalves (~100 families in
500 million years)
 In Conclusion

The evolution debate will be one ongoing for many years to come as scientists
discover more and more evidence to help them shape the theory of evolution.
The End

http://www.nearingzero.net/index.html
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Darwin, Charles (1968) The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Penguin Books,
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the website http://www.darwinday.org/museum/credits.html 17 th January 2004..
 Bibliography
Morten, Jenkins (2000) Evolution: 101 Key Ideas, Hodder Headline Plc, London, UK.

Mudie, K. et.al. (2000) Heinemann Biology, Malcom Parsons, National Library of Australia, Australia.

Paton, David (1996) Overview of Feral and Managed Honeybees in Australia, Department of
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http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~bio336/Bio336/Lectures/Lecture5/Overheads.html January 20 th 2004.

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Zimmer, Carl (2001) Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea, HarperCollins Inc, New York, USA.