Axially loaded members

INTRODUCTION
Structural components subjected only to tension or compression

are known as axially loaded members. Solid bars with straight

longitudinal axes are the most common type, although cables and

coil springs also carry axial loads. Examples of axially loaded bars

are truss members, connecting rods in engines, spokes in bicycle

wheels, columns in buildings and struts in aircraft engine mounts.

CHANGES IN LENGTHS OF AXIALLY LOADED
MEMBERS
When determining the changes in lengths
of axially loaded members, it is
convenient to begin with a coil spring.
When a load is applied along the axis of a
spring, as shown in Fig., the spring gets
longer or shorter depending upon the
direction of the load. If the load acts away
from the spring, the spring elongates and
we say that the spring is loaded in
tension. If the load acts toward the spring,
 Springs
The elongation of a spring is pictured in Fig.,
where the upper part of the figure shows a
spring in its natural length L and the lower part
of the figure shows the effects of applying a
tensile load. Under the action of the force P, the
spring lengthens by an amount d and its final
length becomes L + d. If the material of the
spring is linearly elastic, the load and elongation
will be proportional:
in which k and f are constants of proportionality.
The constant k is called the stiffness of the spring and is defined
as the force required to produce a unit elongation, that is, k = P/.
Similarly, the constant f is known as the flexibility and is defined
as the elongation produced by a load of unit value, that is, f = /P.

k = 1/f
Prismatic Bar: A The elongation of a prismatic bar
structural member having a subjected to a tensile load P as shown in
straight longitudinal axis and
Fig., the uniform normal stress at cross
constant cross section
throughout its length. sections away from the ends is given by the
formula = P/A, where A is the cross-
sectional area. Furthermore, if the bar is
made of a homogeneous material, the axial
strain is = /L, where is the elongation
and L is the length of the bar. Let us assume
that the material is linearly elastic, then
as per Hookes law longitudinal stress and
strain are related by the equation = E.,

Combining these basic relationships, we get the following equation
for the elongation of the bar:, The product EA is known as the
axial rigidity of the bar. Thus, the stiffness and flexibility of a
prismatic bar are, respectively,

k
 Cables
Cables are used to transmit large tensile forces, for
example, when lifting and pulling heavy objects, raising
elevators, guying towers, and supporting suspension
bridges. Unlike springs and prismatic bars, cables cannot
resist compression. Furthermore, they have little resistance
to bending and therefore may be curved as well as straight.
Nevertheless, a cable is considered to be an axially loaded
member because it is subjected only to tensile forces.
Because the tensile forces in a cable are directed along the
axis, the forces may vary in both direction and magnitude,
depending upon the configuration of the cable.
Cables are constructed from a large number of wires wound in some
particular manner. While many arrangements are available depending upon
how the cable will be used, a common type of cable, shown in Fig., is formed
by six strands wound helically around a central strand. Each strand is in turn
constructed of many wires, also wound helically.

For this reason, cables are often referred to as wire rope. The cross-
sectional area of a cable is equal to the total cross sectional area of the
individual wires, called the effective area or metallic area. This area is
less than the area of a circle having the same diameter as the cable because
there are spaces between the individual wires.
Under the same tensile load, the elongation of a cable is greater than
the elongation of a solid bar of the same material and same metallic
cross-sectional area, because the wires in a cable tighten up in the
same manner as the fibers in a rope. Thus, the modulus of elasticity
(called the effective modulus) of a cable is less than the modulus of
the material of which it is made. The effective modulus of steel cables
is about 140 GPa, whereas the steel itself has a modulus of about 210
GPa. When determining the elongation of a cable, the effective
modulus should be used for E and the effective area should be used
for A.
CHANGES IN LENGTHS UNDER NONUNIFORM
CONDITIONS
Bars with Intermediate Axial Loads
Bars Consisting of Prismatic Segments
Bars with Continuously Varying Loads or
Dimensions
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
The springs, bars and cables have one important feature in
common, their reactions and internal forces can be determined
solely from free-body diagrams and equations of equilibrium.
Structures of this type are classified as statically
determinate. The forces in a statically determinate structure
can be found without knowing the properties of the materials.

Let us consider, a bar AB shown in Fig. The calculations for the

internal axial forces in both parts of the bar, as well as for the
reaction R at the base, are independent of the material of
which the bar is made.
Most structures are more complex than the bar of Fig. previously
shown, and their reactions and internal forces cannot be found by
statics alone. This situation is illustrated in Fig., which shows a bar
AB fixed at both ends.

There are now two vertical reactions (RA and RB) but only one
useful equation of equilibrium - the equation for summing forces in
the vertical direction. Since this equation contains two unknowns,
it is not sufficient for finding the reactions. Structures of this kind
are classified as statically indeterminate.

To analyze such structures we must supplement the equilibrium

equations with additional equations pertaining to the
displacements of the structure.
From the discussion we see that the analysis of a statically indeterminate
structure involves setting up and solving equations of equilibrium,
equations of compatibility and force-displacement relations. The
equilibrium equations relate the loads acting on the structure to the
unknown forces (which may be reactions or internal forces) and the
compatibility equations express conditions on the displacements of the
structure. The force-displacement relations are expressions that use
the dimensions and properties of the structural members to relate the
forces and displacements of those members. In the case of axially loaded
bars that behave in a linearly elastic manner, the relations are based upon
the equation = PL/EA. Finally, all three sets of equations may be solved
simultaneously for the unknown forces and displacements.
In the engineering literature, various terms are used for the
conditions expressed by the equilibrium, compatibility and force-
displacement equations. The equilibrium equations are also known
as static or kinetic equations; the compatibility equations are
sometimes called geometric equations, kinematic equations, or
equations of consistent deformations; and the force-displacement
relations are often referred to as constitutive relations (because they
deal with the constitution, or physical properties, of the materials).
 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS AND
PRESTRAINS
External loads are not the only sources of stresses and strains in a
structure. Other sources include thermal effects arising from temperature
changes, misfits resulting from imperfections in construction and
prestrains that are produced by initial deformations. Thermal effects,
misfits, and prestrains are commonly found in both mechanical and
structural systems. As a general rule, they are much more important in
the design of statically indeterminate structures that in statically
determinate ones.
Changes in temperature produce expansion or
contraction of structural materials, resulting in
thermal strains and thermal stresses. A simple
illustration of thermal expansion is shown in Fig.,
where the block of material is unrestrained and
therefore free to expand. When the block is heated,
every element of the material undergoes thermal
strains in all directions, and consequently the
dimensions of the block increase. For most
structural materials, thermal strain T is
proportional to the temperature change T; that is,
A prismatic bar AB of length L is held
between immovable supports (Fig. a). If
the temperature of the bar is raised
uniformly by an amount T, what
thermal stress T is developed in the
bar? (Assume that the bar is made of
linearly elastic material.)
 Misfits and Prestrains
Suppose that a member of a structure is
manufactured with its length slightly different from
its prescribed length. Then the member will not fit
into the structure in its intended manner, and the
geometry of the structure will be different from what
was planned. We refer to situations of this kind as
misfits. Sometimes misfits are intentionally created
in order to introduce strains into the structure at the
time it is built. Because these strains exist before any
loads are applied to the structure, they are called
prestrains.
Accompanying the prestrains are prestresses and the structure is said
to be prestressed.

Common examples of prestressing are spokes in bicycle wheels (which

would collapse if not prestressed), the pretensioned faces of tennis
racquets, shrink-fitted machine parts and prestressed concrete beams.

If a structure is statically determinate, the presence of small misfits

will produce small changes in geometry but no strains or stresses.
Thus, the effects of a misfit are similar to those of a temperature
change.
The situation is quite different if the
structure is statically indeterminate,
because then the structure is not
free to adjust to misfits
 Bolts and Turnbuckles

Prestressing a structure requires that one or more parts of the structure be stretched
or compressed from their theoretical lengths. A simple way to produce a change in
length is to tighten a bolt or a turnbuckle. In the case of a bolt each turn of the nut
will cause the nut to travel along the bolt a distance equal to the spacing p of the
threads (called the pitch of the threads). Thus, the distance traveled by the nut is

= np

in which n is the number of revolutions of the nut (not necessarily an integer).

Depending upon how the structure is arranged, turning the nut can stretch or
compress a member.
In the case of a double-acting turnbuckle, there are two end screws.
Because a right-hand thread is used at one end and a left-hand thread at the
other, the device either lengthens or shortens when the buckle is rotated.
Each full turn of the buckle causes it to travel a distance p along each screw,
where again p is the pitch of the threads. Therefore, if the turnbuckle is
tightened by one turn, the screws are drawn closer together by a distance 2p
and the effect is to shorten the device by 2p. For n turns, we have = 2np

Turnbuckles are often inserted in cables and then tightened, thus creating
initial tension in the cables.
STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
a normal force N that is perpendicular to the inclined plane pq and a
shear force V that is tangential to it. These force components are N
= P cos and V = P sin
 Strain Energy
Strain energy is widely used for determining the
response of machines and structures to both static and
dynamic loads.

Let us consider a prismatic bar of length L subjected to

a tensile force P assuming that the load is applied
slowly, so that it gradually increases from zero to its
maximum value P. The bar gradually elongates as the
load is applied, eventually reaching its maximum
elongation d at the same time that the load reaches its
full value P. Thereafter, the load and elongation remain
unchanged.
During the loading process, the load P moves slowly through the distance d and does a

certain amount of work. To evaluate such type of work load-displacement diagram is

useful tool, such as the one plotted is shown in figure. On this diagram the vertical axis

represents the axial load and the horizontal axis represents the corresponding elongation

of the bar. The shape of the curve depends upon the properties of the material.
Let us denote by P1 any value of the load between zero

and the maximum value P, and let us denote the

corresponding elongation of the bar by 1. Then an

increment dP1 in the load will produce an increment

d1 in the elongation. The work done by the load

during this incremental elongation is the product of

the load and the distance through which it moves, that

is, the work equals P1d1.

 work is represented in the figure by the area of the shaded strip below
This
the load-displacement curve. The total work done by the load as it increases
from zero to the maximum value P is the summation of all such elemental
strips:

In geometric terms, the work done by the load is equal to the area below the
load-displacement curve. When the load stretches the bar, strains are
produced. The presence of these strains increases the energy level of the bar
itself. Therefore, a new quantity, called strain energy, is defined as the
energy absorbed by the bar during the loading process. From the principle of
conservation of energy, this strain energy is equal to the work done by the
load provided no energy is added or subtracted in the form of heat. Therefore
If the force P is slowly removed from the bar, the bar will shorten. If
the elastic limit of the material is not exceeded, the bar will return to
its original length. If the limit is exceeded, a permanent set will remain
left. Thus, either all or part of the strain energy will be recovered in the
form of work. This behavior is shown on the load-displacement
diagram of Fig. During loading, the work done by the load is equal to
the area below the curve (area OABCDO). When the load is removed,
the load-displacement diagram follows line BD if point B is beyond the
elastic limit, and a permanent elongation OD remains. Thus, the strain
energy recovered during unloading, called the elastic strain energy, is
represented by the shaded triangle BCD. Area OABDO represents
energy that is lost in the process of permanently deforming the bar.
This energy is known as the inelastic strain energy.

Linearly Elastic Behavior: Let us now assume that the

material of the bar follows Hookes law, so that the load-

displacement curve is a straight line. Then the strain energy U

stored in the bar (equal to the work W done by the load) is

Which is the area of the shaded triangle OAB in the figure.

The relationship between the load P and the elongation d for a

bar of linearly elastic material is given by the equation

Combining both equation enables us to express the strain energy

of a linearly elastic bar in either of the following forms:


Nonuniform Bars: The total strain energy U of a bar consisting of
several segments is equal to the sum of the strain energies of the
individual segments. For instance, the strain energy of the bar
pictured in Fig. equals the strain energy of segment AB plus the
strain energy of segment BC. This concept is expressed in general
terms by the following equation:

We can obtain the strain energy of a non-prismatic bar with

continuously varying axial force to a differential element and then
integrating along the length of the bar:
Three round bars having the same length L
but different shapes are shown in Fig. The
first bar has diameter d over its entire
length, the second has diameter d over one-
fifth of its length, and the third has diameter
d over one-fifteenth of its length. Elsewhere,
the second and third bars have diameter 2d.
All three bars are subjected to the same
axial load P.
Compare the amounts of strain energy
stored in the bars, assuming linearly elastic
behavior. (Disregard the effects of stress
concentrations and the weights of the bars.)
Determine the strain energy of a prismatic bar suspended from its
upper end Consider the following loads: (a) the weight of the bar
itself, and (b) the weight of the bar plus a load P at the lower end.
(Assume linearly elastic behavior.)
Determine the vertical displacement dB of joint B of the truss shown in Fig.
Note that the only load acting on the truss is a vertical load P at joint B.
Assume that both members of the truss have the same axial rigidity EA.
The cylinder for a compressed air machine is clamped by bolts that pass through the flanges of the
cylinder (Fig. a). A detail of one of the bolts is shown in part (b) of the figure. The diameter d of the
shank is 0.500 in. and the root diameter dr of the threaded portion is 0.406 in. The grip g of the bolts
is 1.50 in. and the threads extend a distance t = 0.25 in. into the grip. Under the action of repeated
cycles of high and low pressure in the chamber, the bolts may eventually break. To reduce the
likelihood of the bolts failing, the designers suggest two possible modifications: (1) Machine down
the shanks of the bolts so that the shank diameter is the same as the thread diameter dr, as shown
in Fig. a. (2) Replace each pair of bolts by a single long bolt, as shown in Fig. b. The long bolts are
similar to the original bolts (Fig. b) except that the grip is increased to the distance L = 13.5 in.
Compare the energy-absorbing capacity of the three bolt configurations: (a) original bolts, (b) bolts
with reduced shank diameter and (c) long bolts.