Biological Bases of Behaviour.

Lecture 7: Techniques for

Understanding Brain Structure
& Function.

Kalat (2000)
 Learning Outcomes.

At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

1. Describe a range of techniques used to determine

brain structure and function.
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of each of
the techniques described.
 The Techniques
Many techniques have been developed to enable
biological psychologists to understand how the brain
works, each having their own advantages and
disadvantages.
It is rare that a single method will provide a
convincing explanation, more often one or more
techniques are utilised to provide a clearer picture.
This is referred to as 'converging operations'
(Carlson, 1994).
 1. Neuroanatomical
Techniques.
These tell us about the anatomical structure of the brain.
a) Histological Procedures: Gross examination of the
brain does not allow us to study details of cell structure
and connectivity, to do so we need to selectively stain
thin slices of the brain.
Preservation: After death the soft brain tissue is
destroyed by autolytic enzymes, so the brain must be
preserved with a fixative, such as formalin.
The brain is then embedded within a paraffin block that
can be sliced thinly using a microtome and mounted on
slides.
Histological stains have been developed so that cell
bodies, nerve fibres and membranes can be selectively
viewed
 Staining.
3 types are used:
i) Cell-body stains.
Developed by Franz Nissl
who discovered that dyes
such as cresyl violet would
selectively reveal the cell
bodies of brain tissue.
ii) Myelin stains.
These selectively colour
the myelin sheath that
surrounds nerve cells and
so fibre bundles are
revealed.

Carlson (1994) p
 Membrane Stains

These contain salts of

various heavy metals
that interact with the
axon membranes.
The commonly-used
Golgi-Cox stain uses
silver.
This enables us to see
the branching of
individual neurons and
trace their connections.

Carlson (1994) p
 b) Tracing Connections.

The structures of the CNS are interconnected by

complex systems of axons, finding out what nuclei are
connected to what others and the routes taken can be
solved by:
i) Anterograde (forward) tracing: Certain proteins are
taken up by cell bodies are transported through axons
until they reach the terminal buttons. Lectins such as
phaseolus vulgaris leukoagglutinin (PHA-L) are often
used.
ii) Retrograde (backward) tracing: Dyes such as
flurogold are injected into the terminal buttons and
are then carried back through the axons to the cell
bodies where they can be seen.
 PHA-L Anterograde Tracing.

PHA-L injected and taken

up by dendrites and cell
bodies
Transported to
terminal buttons

PHA-L labelled axons

and terminal buttons
Carlson (1994) p can be seen under the
111 microscope
 c) Histochemical Techniques.
These tell us the location of
specific neurons that
produce and secrete
particular
neurotransmitters.
Antibodies for a specific
neurotransmitterare
injected into a region and
the slides are viewed under
ultraviolet light.
Alternatively radioactive 2-
deoxyglucose (2-DG) is
taken up by active neurons.

Vasopressin-containing
axons and terminal
buttons
Carlson (1994) p
114
 2. Imaging the Living Brain.
The methods previously described have all required
the brain to be removed.
The following techniques enable neural structure
and function to be viewed in the living brain.
Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT): Consists of a
circular arrangement of x-ray emitters and detectors
in which progressive scans through the brain can be
taken.
A 2-dimensional image of horizontal sections can
then be produced.
This technique is used mainly to diagnose
neurological conditions such as tumours, blood clots,
degenerative disease and the location of strokes.
 CAT scan from a patient with a
lesion in the right occipital-parietal
area.

Lesion site Carlson (1994) p

119
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI).
MRI takes detailed
pictures, using a strong
magnetic field.
It detects radiation from
hydrogen molecules
present in all brain tissue
in different concentrations.
Sagittal, horizontal and
frontal images are
produced.
MRI has now been adapted
to show function as well -
this is called functional
magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI).

Carlson (1994) p
120
 Positron Emission Tomography
(PET).

Radioactive glucose is taken up by active cells in the

brain.
As the radioactive isotopes decay, they emit
positrons which are detected by the scanner.
In a typical experiment, images of blood flow or
radioactive counts during a control state are
subtracted from images taken during functional
activation (i.e. when the individual is performing
some type of cognitive task).
By subtracting measurements in the control state
from a task state it is possible to identify those
areas of the brain concerned with specific mental
operations (Raichle, 1994).
PET Scan of Brain Activation.

Normal elderly control Alzheimers

patient
Rosenzweig et al (2002) p
 Advantages/Disadvantages
of Brain Imaging.

Advantages.
Non-invasive (CAT, MRI).
Provide very detailed knowledge about structure
(CAT, MRI) and function (PET, fMRI).

Disadvantages.
Mildly invasive (PET)
Only provide horizontal pictures (CAT)
 3. Recording Electrical Activity
in the Brain.
Axons generate action potentials, and terminal
buttons elicit postsynaptic potentials.
These electrical events can be recorded, and changes
in electrical activity can be used to determine
whether a structure or region of the brain is involved
in a certain behaviour.
There are two types of measure:
a) Microelectrodes: Are very small and can record
electrical activity within single neurons (single-cell
recording).
These are normally implanted chronically into the
brain of an animal thus allowing the monitoring of
activity as the animal responds to particular
environmental stimuli.
 Advantages/Disadvantages
of Microelectrodes.

Advantages.
Extremely precise.

Disadvantages.
Time consuming.
Too focused - it neglects neuronal interactions.
Invasive.
 b) Macroelectrodes.
The Electroencephalogram (EEG) was invented by
Berger (1929).
Electrodes are attached to the scalp and the activity
of hundreds of thousands of neurons in the vicinity
of the electrodes recorded.
Active electrodes are placed over the site of
expected neural activity and an indifferent electrode
is placed at a neutral spot (usually the earlobe).
The recording simply measures the potential
difference between the two electrodes.
In clinical studies, many electrodes are used and
they are placed over the lobes of the brain according
to a conventional scheme.
 The EEG Record.
Changes in electrical activity are evident in states such as
sleep, wakefulness, and arousal;abnormal electrical
activity can signal epilepsy or mental illness.
Each individuals EEG pattern is distinctive, but there are
characteristic patterns of electrical activity:
Alpha waves (8-13 Hz): Associated with relaxed
wakefulness
Beta waves (13-30 Hz): Seen in individuals who are awake,
alert, with eyes open, and who may be concentrating on
something.
Delta waves (0.5-4 Hz): Associated sleep in adults but are
also seen in infants, their abnormal appearance in awake
adults can be indicative of a brain tumour.
Theta waves (4-7 Hz): Also seen in adults sleeping and in
children. Their abnormal appearance in adults is typically
seen in psychopaths.
 Advantages/Disadvantages
of Macroelectrodes.

Advantages.
Non-invasive
Can differentiate between different neurological
conditions or behavioural states.

Disadvantages.
Time consuming.
Very crude - the averaging of activity in many
neurons cannot establish precise activity in a
particular region.
 4. Brain Stimulation.
In animals, direct electrical stimulation of the brain
can produce clear behavioural changes.
E.g stimulation of the hypothalamus may produce
feeding, drinking, sexual arousal, and aggression
suggesting an activational role.
Stimulation of the caudate nucleus often halts
ongoing behaviour which suggests an inhibitory
role.
In humans this technique was pioneered by Penfield
and Jasper (1954) in which they stimulated various
regions of cortex in conscious patients and noted
down the behavioural or sensory effects.
Electrical Stimulation of
the Human Brain

Carlson (1994) p
 Advantages/Disadvantages
of Brain Stimulation.

Advantages.
Does not harm the brain.
A valid way of investigating living function of brain
areas.

Disadvantages.
Invasive.
Crude - not easy to tell how far the stimulation has
spread.
 5. Experimental Brain
Damage.
An influential, though ethically controversial technique
is to cause localised brain damage in animals and note
the behavioural effects.
If an animal no longer performs a specific behaviour
following brain damage to a particular area (a lesion)
then that area must be responsible for the behaviour.
There are several methods:
Aspiration (ablation): the surface of the cortex is
removed.
Radiofrequency lesion: an electrode is inserted to the
correct location and then the tip is heated destroying
nearby cells.
Neurotoxic lesion: a neurotoxin such as ibotenic acid is
injected into a specific region, this destroys cell bodies
but leaves undamaged fibres of passage.
A Radiofrequency Lesion.

Bilateral radiofrequency lesion of

the cingulum bundle in a rat brain
 Problems in Interpreting Results
of Brain Lesions in
Animals.
1. How do we know that the damage that has been
caused has actually interfered with the behaviour in
question?
2. All regions of the brain are interconnected at some
level and so by damaging a structure, we may also
damage fibre pathways between other areas.
3. As the brain works as an integrated whole,
disturbance at one location may affect the functioning
of other regions.
4. Following damage, some form of regeneration may
take place or other brain regions may partly take over.
5. We are generalising from a damaged animal to
functioning in normal animals.
 6. Human Cases of Brain
Damage.
Head injuries occur in many different forms but rarely
produce localised damage.
Case studies of individuals who do have
circumscribed damage can shed light on how the
brain functions.
Most cases show a dissociation of impairments,
comparisons can be made of the brain regions
damaged in different cases.
While it is unethical to administer selective
neurotoxins to humans and then observe the effects,
some willingly self-administer neurotoxic substances
such as ecstasy and provide ready-made experiments
on the effects of brain damage on mood, memory, and
behaviour.
 Advantages/Disadvantages
of Brain Damage.

Advantages.
No ethical problems as the damage has occurred
naturally.

Disadvantages.
Lack of precision - extent of the damage is not
controllable.
There are problems with comparison - ie if a person
suffers brain damage and behaves aggressively how
do we know that this is not how they behaved
before?
 References and
Bibliography.
Carlson, N.R. (1994). Physiology of Behaviour.
Kalat, J.W. (2000). Biological Psychology.
Penfield, W., & Jasper, H. (1954). Epilepsy and the
functional anatomy of the human brain. Boston:
Little, Brown & Co.
Raichle, M.E. (1994). Imaging the mind: studies with
modern imaging techniques. Annual Review of
Psychology, 45: 333 - 356.
Rosenzweig, M.R., Breedlove, S.M., & Leiman, A.L.
(2002). Biological Psychology.
Toates, F. (2001). Biological Psychology.