GLASS

Dr. Prashant Mehta

Assistant Professor
National Law University, Jodhpur
Glass
Definition
Preparation
Composition
Variety
Uses
Definition
Glass is an amorphous, hard, brittle,
transparent or translucent super cooled
liquid of infinite viscosity, having no
definite melting point obtained by
fusing a mixture of a number of metallic
silicates or borates of Sodium,
Potassium, Calcium, and Lead.
I
It possess no definite formula or
crystalline structure.
An inorganic product of fusion which
has cooled to a rigid condition without
crystallizing
Does not have a specific melting point
Softens over a temperature range
Properties of glass
Glass is:

Amorphous
Brittle
Transparent / Translucent
Good electrical insulator
Unaffected by air, water, acid or chemical
reagents except HF
No definite crystal structure means glass
has high Compressive strength
Can absorb, transmit and reflect light
Raw materials used in manufacturing glass

Raw Materials
Sodium as Na2Co3 (used in soft glass).
Potassium as K2Co3 (used in Hard Glass).
Calcium as lime stone, chalk and lime.
Lead as litharge, red lead (flint glass).
Silica arc quartz, white sand and ignited
flint.
Zinc is zinc oxide (Heat and shock proof
glass).
Borates are borax, Boric acid (Heat and
shock proof glass).
Cullets or pieces of broken glass to increase
fusibility.
Glass Components
Formers Network Formation
SiO2, B2O3, P2O5, GeO2, V2O5, As2O3, Sb2O5
Fluxes Softeners
Na2O, K2O, LiO, Al2O3, B2O3, Cs2O
Stabilizers Provide Chemical Resistance
CaO, MgO, Al2O3, PbO, SrO, BaO, ZnO, ZrO
Manufacturing steps
Melting

Forming and Shaping

Annealing

Finishing
Melting process
Raw materials in proper proportions are
mixed with cullets. It is finely powdered
and intimate mixture called batch is fused
in furnace at high temperature of 1800C
this charge melts and fuses into a viscous
fluid.

CaCO3 + SiO2 CaSiO3 + CO2

Na2CO3 + SiO2 Na2SiO3 + CO2

After removal of CO2 decolorizes like MnO2

are added to remove traces of ferrous
compounds and Carbon. Heating is
continued till clear molten mass is free
Forming, shaping, and annealing
Forming and Shaping

The viscous mass obtained from melting is

poured into moulds to get different types of
articles of desired shape by either blowing
or pressing between the rollers.

Annealing

Glass articles are then allowed to cool

gradually at room temperature by passing
through different chambers with descending
temperatures. This reduces the internal
Strain in the glass.
finishing
Finishing is the last step in glass
manufacturing. It involves following steps.

Cleaning

Grinding

Polishing

Cutting

Sand Blasting
Varieties of glass

Soda lime or Potash lime or Lead glass or Borosilicate or

soft glass hard glass flint glass Pyrex glass

Alumino- 96% Silica glass 99.5% Silica Safety glass

Silicate glass glass(Vitreosil)

Optical or Poly-crystalline Toughened glass Colored glass

Crooks glass glass

Wired Glass Glass Wool Fiber glass Photosensitive

glass

Photo-chromic Neutral glass Laminated glass Insulating glass

glass
Sodalime or soft glass
About 90% of all glass is soda-lime glass made with
silica (sand), Calcium carbonate and soda ash.
The approximate composition is Na2CO3.CaO.6SiO2.
They are low cost, resistant to water but not to
acids.
They can melt easily and hence can be hot worked.

Uses:
Window glass, Electric bulbs, Plate glass, Bottles,
Jars, cheaper table wares, test tubes, reagent
bottles etc
Potash lime or hard glass
Potash lime glass is made with silica (sand),
Calcium carbonate and potassium carbonate.
The approximate composition is K2CO3.CaO.6SiO2.
They posses high melting point, fuse with difficulty
and are less acted upon by acids, alkaline and
other solvents than ordinary glass.

Uses:
These glasses are costlier than soda lime glass and
are used for chemical apparatus, combustion tubes
and glassware which are used for heating
operations.
Lead glass or flint glass
It is made up of lead oxide fluxed with
silica and K2CO3 is used instead of sodium
oxide.
Its approximate composition is
K2Co3.PbO.SiO2.
To get dense optical glasses about 80%
lead oxide is used. Lead glasses has a
lower softening temperature than soda
glass and higher refractive index and good
electrical properties. It is bright lustrous
and possess high specific gravity.

Uses:
High quality table wares, optical lenses,
neon sign tubing, cathode ray tubes,
electrical insulators, crystal art objects or
cut glass, Windows and Shields for
protection against X-rays and Gamma rays
in medical and atomic energy fields etc.
Borosilicate / pyrex / jena glass
It is common hard glass
containing silica and boron
with small amount of alumina
and less alkaline solids.
It contains SiO2(80.5%),
B2O3(13%), Al2O3(03%),
K2O(3%) and Na2O(0.5%).
These glass have low thermal
coefficient of expansion, and
high chemical resistance
i.e..shock proof.

Uses:
Industrially used for pipeline
of corrosive liquids, gauge
glasses, superior laboratory
apparatus, kitchen wares,
Alumino-silicate glass
The typical approximate
composition of this type of
glass is SiO2(55%),
Al2O3(23%), MgO(09%),
B2O3(07%), CaO(05%) and
Na2O, K2O(01%).
This type of glass possess
exceptionally high softening
temperature.

Uses:
It is used for high pressure
mercury discharge tubes,
chemical combustion tubes
and certain domestic
equipments.
96% silica glass
It contains 96% Silica, 03% B2O3
and traces of other materials.
It is translucent, the coefficient of
thermal expansion is very low hence
it has high resistance to thermal
shock, have high chemical
resistance to corrosive agents and
are corroded only by Hydrofluoric
acid, hot phosphoric acids and
concentrated alkaline solutions.

Uses:
Used only where high temperature
resistance is required (800C). They
are used in construction of
chemical plants, laboratory
crucibles, induction furnace lining
and electrical insulators.
99.5% silica glass / vitreosil
It contains pure silica heated
to its melting point. It is
translucent, the coefficient of
thermal expansion is very low
hence it has high resistance to
thermal shock, have high
chemical resistance to
corrosive agents.
If Vitreosil glass is heated
above its melting point, it
becomes transparent and is
known as clear silica glass.

Uses:
They are used in construction
of chemical plants, laboratory
crucibles, induction furnace
lining, electrical insulators and
heaters and have high light
Safety glass
It is made by fusing two to
three flat sheets of glass and in
between them alternate thin
layer of vinyl plastic is
introduced. It is heated where
both the layers merge together
and glass is toughened.

Uses:
It is used as wind shield in
automobiles and airplanes. On
breaking it pieces does not fly
apart because of the presence
of the plastic layer in between
the glass layers.
Optical or crooks glass
It contains Phosphorus, PbCO3, silicates and
Cerium oxide which has the property to absorb
harmful ultra-violet light. This glass is given
through homogeneity by heating it for a prolonged
period of time. These glasses have low melting
point and are relatively soft.

Uses:
They are used for making optical lenses.
Poly-crystalline glass
It is new type of glass which is produced
by adding nucleating agents to a
conventional glass batch and then
shaped into desired form. It is then
subjected to heating where nucleating
agents forms large number of micro
crystallites. It is not ductile. It exhibits
high strength and considerable
hardness.

Uses:
For making specialized articles.
Toughened glass
It is made by dipping articles
still hot in an oil bath, so that
chilling takes place. This
results in outer layer of
articles shrink and acquire a
state of compression while
inner layer are in state of
tension. Such glass is more
elastic to mechanical and
thermal shock. It breaks into a
fine powder.

Uses:
For making window shields of
fast moving vehicles, windows
of furnace and automatic
opening doors.
Coloured glass
Addition of transition metal compounds to glass gives
color to the glass. They are outlined below.
Yellow: Ferric Salts Green: Ferrous and Purple: Magnese
Chromium salts dioxide salt

Red: Nickel and Lemon Yellow: Fluorescent greenish

cuprous salts Cu2O Cadmium sulphide yellow: Uranium oxide

Blue: Cobalt Salts, Greenish Blue Color: Brown: Iron

CuO Copper Sulphate

Opaque milky white: Ruby : Auric Chloride

Cryolite of Calcium
phosphate
Wired glass
Wired glass does not fall apart into splinters when it
breaks and is fire resistant. It is made by fusing wire
in between the two glass layers.

Uses:
For making fire resistant doors, roofs, skylights and
windows
Fibre glass
It is transformed into a fine thread of filament and
has got a high tensile strength.

Uses:
Found extensive use for the manufacture of fabric,
reinforcing plastics and production of thermal
insulation materials etc
Photosensitive glass
These are glasses by
which a colored picture
may be developed by
exposing the glass to
black and white negative
in ultra violet light. The
appropriate proportions
of potash-alumina glass,
mixed with LiSO3, cerium
and Silver salts have also
been used as
photosensitive glass.

Uses:
Photographic
development
Glass wool
Glass wool consists of tiny
fibers formed by action of
steam jets on dripping
molten glass down from
very fine hole.

Uses:
Heat Insulation, for
filtration of Corrosive
chemicals, sound
insulation etc
Photo-chromic glass
The three dimensional silicate
network contains large no. of
microscopic particles of silver
halide which on exposure to
light produce color.

Uses:
In making tinted car glasses
and goggles.
Neutral glass
These glasses are highly resistant to chemical attacks
and they are specialized soda lime glass where alkali
has been replaced by alumina, boron oxide and zinc
oxide.

Uses:
Making Syringes, Injection Ampoules and vials etc.
Laminated glass
The sheets of glass fiber or glass wool are soaked in a
solution of thermosetting plastic like phenol
formaldehyde resin and placed one above the other and
then cured under heat or pressure. It is strong as steel.
Non flammable and insulating. In bullet resistant glass
vinyl resins are added in alternate layers.

Uses:
Shatter, shock and Bullet proof Glass
Insulating glass
Two or more plates of glass are filled with
dehydrated air and the edges are sealed air-tightly.

Uses:
Provides thermal insulating and so houses remain
cool in summer and warm in winter.
Fracture / failure of glass
Glass does not have crystal lattice structure hence
it breaks. Fracture is caused by small
imperfections, flaws and irregularity on the surface
of the glass. Flaws are very fine cracks cause
concentration of stress and the crack proceeds
quickly causing a fracture.
Major Forensic Glass Sources
Flat Glass Soda lime silicate
Drawing, Rolling, or Floating
Tempered: Rapid Cooling
Adds Strength
Dices when broken
Automotive windows &
security windows
Float Glass floresces
when excited at 254 nm.
Coated: Surface modification
Mirrors
Laminated: Sandwiched
around plastic
Automotive windshields
Headlights: Sometimes
borosilicate
Light bulbs: Soda lime glass
Heat absorbing/ UV filtering
Tinted
Photochromic (Light
Sensitive)
Eyeglasses
Container Glass
Lower magnesium, higher
sodium
Clear vs. greenish (window)
Glass Fibers
Fiberglass insulation
Alumino-borosilicate
Binder (red or yellow) to hold
fibers in bundles
Glass Fractures

GLASS FRACTURES
First bends in the direction of the force splintering and cracking and breaking.
Radial cracks - Concentric cracks.
3 Rs - RADIAL - RIGHT ANGLES - REVERSE PROJECTILES AND BULLETS
If does not penetrate get the ejection of a small cone of the glass
Bullets edge will be wedged
hole wider in the direction of travel
size of the bullet holes
laminated glass and plastic sheet
size of bullet and distances
Glass breaks in a characteristic manner which indicates the direction of travel of the
impacting object. Conchoidial striations are ripples seen through the cross section of
broken glass. They are always at right angles to the impacted surface.
Radial fractures emanating from high velocity projectile entry points indicate the sequence
in which guns shots were fired. The radial cracks will stop where an earlier crack already
exists, so it must have come later in the sequence.
Glass
Glass is found in many types of cases. Like paint, it is often involved in
burglaries and hit-and-runs. Glass fragments easily embed in shoes, hair
and clothing of people involved in the breakage of glass. Sometimes glass
fragments can be reconstructed to yield evidence. Reconstruction.
Collection of evidence
It is best to take a representative sample of the glass - this could be the
four corners of a broken window, or all the glass available if the glass
broken is not a window. If more than one type of glass is broken, collect
representative samples of each different type.
Analysis of evidence

Most glass analyses consist of comparing the refractive indices, elemental

compositions and densities of two or more samples.
Glass
The forensic scientist will first of all assess the physical characteristics of the glass:
Refractive index. This is a measure of how much the light is bent, or refracted, as it
passes through the glass.
If a colourless piece of glass is put into water, you can still see it because the water and
glass have different refractive indices. The refractive index of glass does not vary
significantly with temperature, but those of liquids do. If a piece of glass is placed in a
liquid which is then heated, at some point the refractive indices will be identical and you
will no longer be able to see the piece of glass. If the two pieces of glass one the
suspect and one from the scene of crime, have identical refractive indices, then they
are from the same source. Nowadays, refractive index methods are semi-automatic
the GRIM2 instrument measures the refractive index of glass fragments by reference to
calibrated immersion oils and automatically identifies the glass.
Elemental composition. The elements investigated are usually sodium,
magnesium, aluminum, silicon, potassium, calcium, barium and iron.
Density measurements. The density of glass can be measured by flotation
measurements, though this technique is rarely used these days.
 Glass Gallery