Diodes

1
 Diode
Class of non-linear circuits
having non-linear v-i Characteristics

Uses
Generation of :
DC voltage from the ac power supply
Different wave (square wave, pulse) form generation
Protection Circuits

Digital logic & memory circuits

 Creating a Diode

A diode allows current to flow in one

direction but not the other.

When you put N-type and P-type silicon

together gives a diode its unique
properties.
 Diode

Equivalent circuit in the reverse direction

Equivalent circuit in the forward direction.

 Operation
Reverse Bias
-ve voltage is applied to Anode
Current through diode = 0 (cut off operation)
Diode act as open circuit

Forward Bias
+ve voltage applied to Anode
Current flows through diode
voltage Drop is zero (Turned on)
Diode is short circuit
The two modes of operation of ideal diodes

Forward biased Reverse biased

Forward Current 10 mA Reverse Voltage 10 V

 Ex 3.2

1
1

iP
vD 1.5v vD
1.5v

iD
1.5
1.5 A
iD 0
1
v D 1.5v
vD 0
 Rectifier circuit

Input waveform
Equivalent circuit when vi 0

Output waveform.
Equivalent circuit when vi 0

Waveform across diode

 Exercise 3-3

10 0
iD 10mA
1k
1 t2
vD vi dt
t 2 t1 t1

1 2

vD 10 sin 0dt
2 0
1 10 10
vD

10 cos 0 1 1 3.18V
2 2
 Battery Charger

24sin 12 V
1
sin 30 0
2
Conduction Angle 2 120 0
one third of cycle
Figure 3.6 Circuits for Example 3.2. Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V
Example 3.2.

Assumption
Both Diodes are conducting
 Assumption
Both Diodes are conducting
V 0, VB 0
Node A
10 0
I D2 1mA
10k
Node B
0 10
I 5 k I D1 I D 2 2mA
5k
From above equation I D1 should be 1mA
It is not possible

Not Possible
Thus assumption of both
diode
Example 3.2(b). Assumption # 2
Diodes 1 is not conducting
Diodes 2 is conducting

10 10 20
I D2 1.33mA
15 15

VA 10 1.33 5k 3.3v

VB 1.3310k 10 3.3v

Assumption is correct

VB VA 3.3 V, I D1 0, I D 2 1.33mA
Figure E3.4
Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V
Figure E3.4
Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

I= 2mA I= 0A I= 0A I= 2mA
V= 0V V= 5V V= -5V V= 0V
Figure E3.4 Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

I= 3mA I= 4mA
V= 3V V= 1V
Figure P3.2 Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V
 Figure P3.2 Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

Diode is conducting
I = 0.6 mA
V = -3V

Diode is cut-off
I = 0 mA Diode is conducting
V = 3V I = 0.6 mA
V = 3V Diode is cut-off
I = 0 mA
V = -3V
 Problem 3-3
Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

D1 Cut-Off & D2 Conducting

I = 3mA
D1 Cut-Off & D2 Conducting
I = 1mA , V=1 V
Figure P3.4
v1 is a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.
In ideal diodes circuits,

Sketch the waveform of vo

 v1 is a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.
In ideal diodes circuits,

Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 10V Vp+ = 0V

Vp- = 0V Vp- = - 10V Vo = 0V
f = 1 K-Hz f = 1 K-Hz
Figure P3.4 In ideal diodes circuits, v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.

Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 10V
Vp- = -10V Vp+ = 10V Vp+ = 10V
f = 1 K-Hz Vp- = 0V Vp- = 0V
f = 1 K-Hz f = 1 K-Hz
Figure P3.4 In ideal diodes circuits, v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.

Sketch the waveform of vo

 Figure P3.4
v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.
In ideal diodes circuits,

Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 0V
Vp- = -10V V0 = 0V Vp+ = 10V
f = 1 K-Hz Vp- = -5V
f = 1 K-Hz
Figure P3.4 In ideal diodes circuits, v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.

Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 10V
Vp- = -5V
f = 1 K-Hz
Problem 3-4(k)
vi 10V peak @ frequency 1000 H z
vi 10 sin 2000t

For Vi >0 V D1 is cutoff D2 is conducting

vo=1V
For Vi < 0 V is conducting D2 is cutoff
vo=vi+1V

-9V
Problem 3-4(k)
 Figure P3.6

X=A.B
X=A+B
 Problem 3-4 (c)

vi 10Vpeak @ frequency1000 H z
vi 10 sin 2000t

vo=zer
o
 Problem 3-4(f)
Vi is a 1kHz 10-V peak sine wave.

+ve Half Cycle with 10 V peak at 1

KHz
 Problem 3-4(h)

vi 10Vpeak @ frequency1000 H z
vi 10 sin 2000t vo=z
 Problem 3.5

vi is 10 V peak sine wave and I = 100 mA current source. B is battery

i
of 4.5 V . Sketch and label the B

100 mA

4.5 v

vi 10Vpeak @ frequency1000 H z
vi 10 sin 2000t
Solution P3-5 100 mA

vi 10Vpeak @ frequency1000 H z
vi 10 sin 2000t B 4.5 V

vi 4.5V , D1 conducts D2 cutoff

4.5 v
All curren t flows thru D1, iB 0 A

vi 4.5V , D1 cutoff all current flows thru battery

Conduction angle
10 sin 4.5V sin 1 (0.45) 26.7 0 ,153.30
Conduction angle 2 126.60

126.6
Fraction of cycle that i B of 100mA flows 0.35
360
Problem 3-5
100 mA

4.5 v
 Problem 3-5
10

4.5
100 mA

1 1
iBaverage iB dt 100 0.35T 35mA
T T
REVERSE POLARITY
PROTECTOR
 REVERSE POLARITY
PROTECTOR
The diode in this circuit protects a radio or
a recorder etc... In the event that the
battery or power source is connected the
wrong way round, the diode does not
allow current to flow.
 Problem 3-9

I1 I1

2
2

I3 I3

D1& D2 Conducting
I1=1mA D1=off, D2=On
I3=0.5 mA I1= I3=0.66 mA
I2=0.5 mA V = -1.7 V
 Problem 3-10

D conducting D is not conducting

I=0.225 mA I=0A
V=4.5V V=-2V
 Problem 3-16

V RED GREEN

3V On Off D1 conducts
0 V Off Off
-3 V Off On D2 conducts
 Quiz No 3 DE 28 EE -A

Sketch vO if vi is 8 sin
Find out the conduction angle for the diode &
fraction of the cycle the diode is conducting
 Solution Quiz No 3
8 4 I1 2 I 2
2 2 I1 3I 2

2 I 2 2 I 2 1mA
8V Vo 1 1 2 3V

I1

I2

8
2
I 2 1mA vi/2
2
I
Vo 1 1 2 3V
Conduction angle 2 60o
4 sin 2 30
2 1
Fraction of Cycle the diode conducts 33% 10-10-07
2 3
 Sketch vO if vi is 10 sin
Find out the conduction angle for the diode &
fraction of the cycle the diode is conducts

D never conducts +12 V

1

Vi<5V D2 is cut-off, Vo=5V

D1
Vi>5V D2 is
10conducts
5
Vomax 5 7.5V
2
D2

Conduction angle 2 60o

10 sin 5 30
5
2 1
Fraction of Cycle the diode conducts 33%
2 3

22-10-07
 Quiz No 3 DE 27 CE -B
Sketch vO if vi is 10 sin
Find out the conduction angle for the diode &
fraction of the cycle the diode is conducts

D never conducts
1

Vi<5V D2 is cut-off, Vo=Vi

5
10conducts
Vi>5V D2 is
Vomax 5 7.5V
2
Conduction angle 2 60o
10 sin 5 30
2 1
Fraction of Cycle the diode conducts 33%
2 3
 Problem

Assume the diodes are ideal,

sketch vo if the input is 10sin
(9)

Find out the conduction angles

for Diode D1 & D2 (4) and the
fraction of the cycle these diodes
conduct. (2)
 2 vi 1 vo vi
vi 1
vi 1V v0 1 1
4
vipeak 10V vopeak 4.25V

vi 2V vo 2V
 2 vi 1 vo vi
vi 1
vi 1V v0 1 1
4
vi 2V vo 1.25V
vi 1
v0 1 1V
vi 2V vo 2V 4

-2V
Two-dimensional representation of the silicon crystal.

14 Electrons
Silicon and Germanium
Silicon Lattice
At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by
thermal ionization.
Each broken bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of
which become available for current conduction.
Intrinsic Semiconductor

Electrons and holes

Semiconductor Current
 The Doping of Semiconductors

.
Valence Electrons
N Type
P Type
n and p Type Semiconductors
 p-n Junction
P Junction
Concentration of holes is high
Majority charge carrier are hole

N Junction
Concentration of electron is high
Majority charge carrier are electron
 Diffusion Current ID
Hole diffuse across the junction from the p
side to the n side & similarly electron

Two current components add together to

form the diffusion current with direction
from p to n side
 Drift Current Is
Diffusion current due to majority carrier
diffusion

A component due to minority carrier drift

exists across the junction
(a)The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).
(b) The potential distribution along an axis perpendicular to the junction.
Forward Biased Conduction
 The polarity of applied voltage which can't produce any current is called Reverse
Bias.
The polarity of applied voltage which causes charge to flow through the diode is
called Forward Bias.
Terminal Characteristics
of
a Junction Diode
 The diode iv relationship

The diode iv relationship with some scales expanded

and others compressed in order to reveal details.
 Terminal Characteristics of a
Junction Diode

Forward Biased Region v > 0

Reversed Biased Region v < 0

Breakdown Region v < -VZK

 Forward Biased Region
v

i Is e nVT
1

Is Saturation current Scale Current

Is is constant at a given temperature

Is is directly proportional to Cross-Sectional region

of the diode, Is doubles if cross-sectional area is
double

Is is 10-15 A for small size diode

Doubles in value for every 10OC rise in temperature

 Forward Biased Region
v

Thermal Voltage VT i Is e nVT
1

VT = kT/q
K = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 X 10-23 Joules/Kelvin
T = Absolute Temperature in Kelvin (273 +Temp in Co)
q = Magnitude of charge = 1.6 X 10-19 Coulombs

VT @ 20oC is 25.2mV, ~ 25 mV

n is 1 or 2 depending on the material and the

physical structure of the diode
n = 1 for Germanium Diode & n=2 for Silicon
 Forward Biased Region
v

i >> Is v
i Is e


nVT
1


i I se nVT

v

ln i ln I s e nVT v ln I
nV
s
T

i
v nVT ln
Is
b Relationship of the current i to the voltage
v holds good over many decades of current
(seven decades, a factor of 107
 Forward Biased Region
v1

I1 I s e nVT

v2

I2 I se nVT

v v
I2
2 1

e nVT

I1
I2 I2
v2 v1 nVT ln 2.3nVT log
I1 I1
 Forward Biased Region
I2
v2 v1 2.3nVT log
I1
I2
for I1
10 v drop changes by
for n = 1 2.3nVT 60mV

for n = 2 120mV

v 0.5v cut in voltage

v 0.6v 0.8v 0.7v

Illustrating the temperature dependence of the diode forward characteristic

At a constant current, the voltage drop decreases by

approximately 2 mV for every 1C increase in
temperature.
Figure E3.9

If V=1V at 20o C, Find V at

400C and 00C

Is

At 20o C Reverse current Is = 1V/1M = 1 A

Since the reverse leakage current doubles for every 100 C increase,

At 400 C I = 4*1 = 4 A V = 4 A * 1M = 4.0 V

At 0 C I = A V = 0.25 V
Forward biased Diode Characteristics
Example 3.3
A silicon diode displays a forward voltage of
0.7 V at a current of 1mA. Find Is at n=1 & 2

v v

i I se nVT
I s ie nVT

0.7
3
1 I s 10 e 2510 3
6.9 10 16 A
0.7
3 10
2 I s 10 e 2 2510 3
8.3 10 A
 Ex 3.7
Silicon Diode with n=1 has VD=0.7V @
i=1mA. Find voltage drop at i=0.1mA &
10mA

v v

i I se nVT
I s ie nVT

0.7
1 3
I s 10 e 2510 3
6.9 10 15 A
i 10 4
For i 0.1mA V1 VT ln 3
25 10 ln 16
0.64V
Is 6.9 10
2
i 10
For i 10mA V1 VT ln 25 10 3 ln 16
0.76V
Is 6.9 10
 Solution P3-18
(a) At what forward voltage does a diode for which n=2 conduct a
current equal to 1000Is?

(b) In term if Is what current flows in the same diode when its forward
voltage is 0.7 V

(a )
2, Diode current i 1000IS
v v

i ISe nVT
1000 I S I s e 22510 3

v 0.345V
(b)
v 0.7V
v 0.7
i ISe nVT
I se 0.05
1.2 106 I S
 Problem 3-23
The circuit shown utilizes three
identical diodes having n=1 and Is=
10 -14 A. Find the value of the
current I required to obtain an output
voltage Vo=2 V. Assume n=1

If a current of 1mA is drawn away

from the output terminal by a load,
what if the change in the output
voltage. Assume n=1
 Solution 3-23
The circuit shown utilizes three identical
diodes having n=1 and Is= 10 -14 A. Find the
value of the current I required to obtain an
output voltage Vo=2 V.

Info available n 1, I S 10 14 A,Vo 2V

vo 2
The voltage across e ach diode is vDX
3 3
v DX 2
3
14
I DX I S e VT
10 e 0 .025
3.81mA

If a current of 1mA is drawn away from the output terminal

by a load, what if the change in the output voltage.

(b)
Load current 1mA, theref ore I DY 2.81mA
(v DY v DX ) (v DY 2 / 3 )
I DY
e 0 .025
e 0 .025
I DX
voY vO 2 v01 22.8mV
 Problem 3-25
In the circuit shown,
both diode have n=1,
but D1 has 10 times
the junction area of
D2. What value of V
results?
 In the circuit shown, both diode
have n=1, but D1 has 10 times the
Solution 3-25(a) junction area of D2. What value
of V results?
VD 1 VD 2
VT VT
I D1 I S 1e I D 2 I S 2e
I S 1 10 I S 2
VD 1
VT
I D1 10 I S 2e
VD 2
VT VD 2 VD 2
I D2 I e VT
S 2 VD1 0.1e ..............1
I D1
10 I S 2 eVT
10 I D 2
V0 VD 2 VD1 VT ln .................2
I D1

I1 I D 2 I D1 I D 2 I1 I D1..........3
I D1 2mA, I D 2 10 2 8mA

80
V0 VD 2 VD1 0.025 ln 92.2mV
2
 To obtain a value of 50 mV, what current
solution 2-25 (b) I2 id needed.

Vo 50mA, Find I D1 , I D 2

I D 2 0.01 I D1
VD 2 VD 2
I D2 VT I D2
0.1e 0.1e 2
I D1 0.01 I D 2
I D 2 4.25mA

I D1 (10 4.25) 5.75mA

Problem 3-26
For the circuit shown,
both diodes are identical,
conducting 10mA at 0.7 V
and 100 mA at 0.8 V.

Find n

Find the value of R for

which V = 80 m V.
 Solution 3-26 (a)
Diodes are identical therefore I , , VT are same
S

For Diode 1 VD1 0.7V @ I D1 10mA

For Diode 2 VD2 0.8V @ I D 2 100mA
I D2
VD 2 VD1 VT ln
I D1
Find
100
0.8 0.7 0.025 ln
10
1.739
I D2
Find R if Vo=80mV V VD 2 VD1 VT ln
I D1
0.01 I D1
0.08 1.737 0.025 ln
I D1
I D1 1.4mA
80
R 57.1
1.4
 Problem 3.36
Assuming identical diodes for which VD =0.7V
@ ID=1mA. Find R if V0 = 3 V

3
VDx 0.75V
4
VDX
V
I DX I S e T

VD 2
V (VD 2 VD 2 )
I D2 e T
V
V e T

I D1 D1
V
e T

(V D 2 V D 2 ) ( 0.75 0.7 )
V
I D 2 I D1 e T
1 e 2510 3
7.389mA

I D2
.75 0.7 VT ln I D 2 7.389mA
10 3
10 3
R 947
7.389 10 3
Modeling the Diode
Forward
Characteristics
A simple circuit used to illustrate the analysis of circuits in which
the diode is forward conducting.

VD
VT
ID ISe

VDD VD
ID
R
Graphical analysis of the circuit using the exponential diode model.
 Iterative Analysis using the
Exponential Model
Determined the diode current ID and Diode
voltage VD with VDD =5V and R =1000
ohms. Diode has a current of 1mA @ a V D
of .7 V, and that its voltage drop changes
by 0.1 V for every decade change in
current.
 Solution
First iteration VD 0.7V
VD
VT
ID ISe 4.3mA
I2
V2 V1 2.3VT log
I1
V 2.3VT 0.1V For Every decade change in current
4.3
V2 V1 0.1 log 0.763V
1.0

Second iteration VD 0.763V Solution

VD
ID ISe V
T
4.237 mA I D 4.237 mA,
I2
V2 V1 2.3VT ln
I1 VD 0.762V
4.237
V2 0.763 0.1 log 0.762V
4.3
The Piecewise-Linear Model
Approximating the diode forward characteristic with
two straight lines: the piecewise-linear model.
 The Piecewise-Linear Model
Exponential curve is approx into two
straight lines

Line No 1 with zero slope & Line 2 with a

slope of 1/rd

The voltage change of less than 50 mV is

observed in case the current change from
0.1 mA to 10 mA. i 0
D v 0V D

(v D V D 0 )
iD v D VD 0
rD
Piecewise-linear model of the diode forward characteristic and
its equivalent circuit representation.
Piecewise-linear model
 The
Constant Voltage Drop
Model
Constant Voltage Drop Model
Forward conducting diode exhibits a
constant voltage drop VD

The voltage change of less than 50 mV

is observed in case the current change
from 0.1 mA to 10 mA.

Model is used when

Detailed information about diode
characteristics in not available
Constant-voltage-drop model
The constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward
characteristics and its equivalent-circuit representation.
 The Small Signal Model
A small ac signal is superimposed on the DC
components.

First determined dc Operating Point

Then small signal operation around the

operating point
Small portion of the curve is approximated as
almost linear segment of the diode characteristics.
The Small Signal Model
Figure 3.17 Development of the diode small-signal model. Note that the numerical values shown are for a diode with n = 2.
 The Small Signal Model
In absence of signal Once signal is applied
v D (t ) VD v d (t )
I D I s e VD
VT i D (t ) I s e v D
VT
i D (t ) I s e
VD vd (t )
VT
VD
vd ( t )
V V
i D (t ) I s e T
e T

vd ( t )
V
i D (t ) I D e T

vd
For very small signal 1
VT
vd
i D (t ) I D (1 )
VT
i D (t ) I D id (t )
The Small Signal Model
vd
i D (t ) I D (1 )
VT
i D (t ) I D id (t )
I D vd
id (t )
VT
VT
rd
ID

rd is inversely proportional to I D
Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic
Table 3.1 (Continued)
 Exp 3-6
VDD 10V,v d 1V peak amplitude @ 60 Hz
Diode has a current of 1mA @ a VD of .7 V, n 2
Find rd , VD , vd (t )

+
vd
+
ID -
VD
-
 Solution
VDD VD 10 0.7
ID 0.93mA
R 10
VT 2 25
rd 53.8
ID 0.93
Small signal
rd
vdpeak v speak 5.35mV
R rd
Input variation of 10% resulted in output voltage
variation of 0.7+5.4mV(0.8%) Voltage regulation
 Exercise 3-16
Design a circuit shown so that Vo=3v
when IL =0 A and Vo changes by 40 mV
per 1mA of diode current.
(a) Find the value of R
(b) The junction area of each diode
relative to a diode with ).7 V drop at 1mA
current. Assume n=1
 Excercise 3-16
vo 0.04
rDT 3 40
io 10 Why 4 diodes and not 5? Diodes
will not conduct at 0.6 V
rDX 40 / 4 10
nVT
I DX 2.5mA
rDX
15 3
R 4.8K
2.5m
At dc Operating Point VDX 3 / 4 .75V
I D1 1mA, VD1 0.7V
VDX V1
I DX I SX I SX
e nVT
0.34
I D1 I S 1 I S1
The diodes have the junction area 0.34 times the diode
Diode Forward Drop in Voltage Regulation

Small signal model is used.

Voltage remains constant in spite of :

Changes in load current
Changes in the dc power supply voltages

One diode provides constant voltage of 0.7 V

and for greater voltages diodes can be
connected in series.
 Example 3-7

A string of three diodes is used to provide

a constant voltage of about 2.1 V. We
want to calculate the percentage change
in this regulated voltage caused by
(a) a + 10 % change to the power supply
voltage
(b) Connection of a 1 K ohms load
resistance , Assume n=2
Solution Exp 3-7
 P 3-53
In a particular cct application, ten
20 mA diodes ( a 20 mA diode is
a diode that provides a 0.7 V drop
when the current thru it is 20 mA)
connected in parallel operate at a
total current of 0.1 A. For the
diodes closely matched, with n=1,
what current flows in each.
0.1
iDx 0.01A
10

What is the corresponding small

signal resistance of each diode and nVT
rdx 2.5
of the combination? I Dx
2.5
req 0.25
10
 If each of the 20 mA diode has a
series resistance of 0.2 ohm
associated with the wire bonds to
the junction. What is the
equivalent resistance of the 10
parallel connected diodes?
1
Re q 2.5 0.2 0.27
10

What connection resistance would

single diode need in order to be
totally equivalent?
The diode iv relationship
Reversed Biased Diode
 Leakage current:
In the reverse direction there is a small
leakage current up until the reverse
breakdown voltage is reached.

This leakage is undesirable, obviously the

lower the better.

Diodes are intended to operate below their

breakdown voltage.
 The Reversed Biased Region
v

i Is e nVT
1


v is negative & VT (25mV )
i I S
Current in reserved biased diode circuit is due to leakage
current & increases with increase in reverse voltage

Leakage current is proportional to the junction area &

temperature but doubles for every 10oC rise in
temperature
 Breakdown Region
Once reverse voltage exceeds a threshold value of diode V ZK,
this voltage is called breakdown voltage.
VZK Z Zener, K Knee

At breakdown knee reverse current increases rapidly with

associated small increase in voltage drop

Diode breakdown is not destructive if power dissipated by diode

is limited by external circuitry.

Vertical line for current gives property of voltage regulation

The diode iv characteristic with the breakdown
region shown in some detail.
Zener Diode
 Zener Diode
Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region

Very steep i-v curve at breakdown with almost

constant voltage drop region

Used the designing voltage regulator

Diode manufactured to operate specifically in the

Breakdown region called Zener or Breakdown Diode
Zener Diode : Symbol
IZ

- VZ +
 Model: Zener
Manufacturer specify Zener Voltage Vz at a specified
Zener test current Iz, the Max. power that the device
can safely dissipate 0.5 W @ 6.8 v at max 70mA
Vz I z rz
rz Dynamic resistance of the Zener and is the inverse
of the slope of the almost linear i-v curve at
operating point Q

Lower rz, the more constant Zener Voltage

The most common range of zener voltage is 3.3 volts

to 75 volts,
Model for the zener diode.
 Model: Zener

Vz Vzo rz I z
I z I zk
Vz Vzo
 Designing of the Zener shunt regulator

+
Supply voltage includes
a large ripple component Vo

Zener regulator
Vo is an output of the zener regulator
that is as constant as possible in spite of
the ripples in the supply voltage VS
and the variations in the load current
Voltage regulator performance can be measured
Line Regulation & Load Regulation
Line Regulation = Vo/Vs
Load Regulation = V /I
 Expression of performance : Zener regulator

I +
(Vs -Vo ) (Vo -V zo)
IL
R rz V
o
- IL

R r
Vo Vzo( ) VS ( z ) - I L(rz ||R)
R rz R rz

Only the first term on right hand side is desirable one

Second and third terms depend upon
Supply Voltage Vs and Load current IL
Vo rz
Line Regulation = /
Vs (rz R)
Load Regulation =
Vo
- (rz ||R)
I L
 Expression of performance : Zener regulator

I +

V
o
- IL

An important consideration for the design is

To ensure that current through the zener diode
never becomes too low i.e less than I ZK or Izmin

Minimum zener current Izmin occurs when

Supply Voltage Vs is at its minimum VSmin
Load current IL is at its maximum ILmax

Above design can be made be selecting proper

value of resistor R
VZ
where I L max
(Vs min VZO - rz I z min ) RL
R
(I z min I L max )
 Example 3.8

The circuit with the zener diode replaced with its equivalent circuit model.
Exp 3-8
Example 3-8

V 10v 1v
R 0.5k
V z 6.8v
I z 5mA
rz 20
I zk 0.2mA
I RL 1mA
 a) Find No Load VoRegulation
Vo &Line

Depending upon the manufacturer provide Data

First calculate Vzo if Vz =6.8 V & Iz=5mA, rZ=20 ohm

Vz Vzo rz I z
3
Vzo Vz I z rz 6.8 5 20 10 6.7v
Now connecting the Zener diode in the Cct as shown
Calculate actual Iz and resulting Vo
Thus establishing operating Point

V Vzo 10 6.7
Iz 6.35mA
R rz 500 20
Vo Vzo I z rz 6.7 6.35 20 10 3 6.827V 6.83V

Now carry out Small Signal Analysis

Suppress DC source and calculate resultant change in Vo
Use voltage divider rule

V rz 1 20
Vo 38.5mv
R rz 520

Vo 38.5
Line Regulation 3.85mv / v
V 1
b) Find vO if load resistance RL connected
& draws 1mA and load regulation
 1mA drawn by load would
decrease by same amount so
Vo rz I z 20 1mA 20mV Iz

Vo
Load Regulation 20mV / mA
I z

6.83v
RL 6.83k
1mA
Check RL || R
20 6830
19.94
6850
exact CalculationsV V V I r 6.7 5.35 20 6.807V
Z o ZO Z Z

Vs VZ 10 6.807
IZ 6.14mA
R RL || rZ 500 19.94
I Z 6.35 6.14 .21mA 210 A
c) Vo for RL 2k

VZ
I RL 3.4mA
RL
I Z 3.4mA
Vo r Z I Z 68mV
 1) Check
10
500

2000 2000
Vo 10 8v
2500

Zener at Breakdown region

 10v
10
0.5k

A
500
6.7v

6.63v 2k
20
Vo
B
19.8
A

6.7 2000
Voc 6.63v
2020
Re q 19.8
 d ) RL 500

10v
10 500
Vo 5v
500 1000

Zener is not operating

500 @ V V
o zk

5 6.8v
e) Min value of R for which the diode still
L

operates in the breakdown region

at Breakdown Region

10 1v
I z I zk 0.2mA
500 Vz Vzk 6.7v
Iz
Iz VDD 9v min
9 6.7
6.7v RL I 4.6mA
500
0.2mA I I zk I RL
I RL 4.6 0.2 4.4mA
Vzk 6.7
RL 1.5k
I RL 4.4m
 Problem D3.68
Design a 7.5-V zener regulator circuit using a 7.5-V
zener specified at 12mA. The zener has an incremental
resistance rz = 30 and a knee current of 0.5mA. The
regulator operates from a 10-V supply and has a 1.2-k
load.

(a) What is the value of R you have chosen?

(b) What is the regulator output voltage when the supply is

10% high? Is 10% low?

(c) What is the output voltage when both the supply is 10%
high and the load is removed?

(d) What is the smallest possible load resistor that can be

used while the zener operates at a current no lower
than the knee current while the supply is 10% low?
 Solution 3-68
rz 30
I Zk 0.5mA
VZ 7.5V
I Z 12mA
3
7.5 VZO 12 30 10
VZO 7.14V
7.5
I RL 6.25mA
1.2
 Design a 7.5-V zener regulator circuit using a
7.5-V zener specified at 12mA. The zener has
an incremental resistance rz = 30 and a knee
current of 0.5mA. The regulator operates from
a 10-V supply and has a 1.2-k load.

(a) What is the value of R you have chosen?

Select I 10mA
7.5
I RL 6.25mA
1.2
So that I Z 3.75mA
Which is I Zk
10 7.5
R 250
10
 (b) What is the regulator output
voltage when the supply is 10%
high? Is 10% low?
For V 1V
1.2 // 0.03
V O 1
0.250 (1.2 // .03)
0.1V
Thus V O 7.4V to 7.6V

(c) What is the output voltage when

both the supply is 10% high and
the load is removed?

With V 11 V and I L 0
11 V O
V O V ZO X 0.03
0.28
V O 7.55V
(c) What is the smallest possible load resistor that can
be used while the zener operates at a current no
lower than the knee current while the supply is 10%
low? IZK=0.5mA, VZO=7.14 V

9 7.155
11V 3 250
R 0.25
7.38mA
VO
7.14 0.03 X 0.5
2 0.5mA RL min
7.155V
1

7.155
RL min
7.38 0.5
1.04k
 Rectifier Circuit Power Supply
Power supply must supply dc voltage to be constant in
spite of
variation is ac line voltage
Variation in current drawn by load, that is variable load resistance
 Rectifier Circuits

Filter
Smoothes out pulsating dc but still some time-dependent
components-(ripple) remain in the output

Voltage Regulation
Reduces ripples
Stabilizes magnitude of dc output against variation in load
current
Regulation by Zener Diode or Voltage regulator I.C
 Half Wave Rectifier

Transfer characteristic of
the rectifier circuit

Input and output waveforms, assuming that rD >> R.

Full Wave Rectifier
Input and output waveforms.
 Full Wave Rectifier
Diode in Reverse biased state
Anode @ - Vs
Cathode @ + Vo

PIV = 2Vs - VDO

Twice as in case of half wave rectifier

Bridge Rectifier
The bridge rectifier: (a) circuit; (b) input and output
waveforms.
Bridge Rectifier
Bridge Rectifier
 Bridge Rectifier
D1
Peak Inverse Voltage D4

D2 D3

PIV => consider loop D3, R & D2

VD3(res) = Vo + VD2
Vo = Vs 2VD
PIV = Vs 2VD + VD = Vs VD

Half of PIV for Full wave Rectifier

Figure 3.28 (a) A simple circuit used to illustrate the
effect of a filter capacitor. (b) Input and output
waveforms assuming an ideal diode.
Peak detector with Load
Figure 3.29 Voltage and current waveforms in the peak
rectifier circuit with CR<<T.
Charge / Discharge Cycle
Peak detector with Load

Vo
iL
R
iD iC i L
dVs
iD C iL
dt
Figure 3.30 Waveforms in the full-wave peak rectifier.
Peak Rectifier : Output Voltage
When Vr is small
Vo = Vpeak
iL is almost constant
VP
DC components of iL iL
R

Accurate value of output

1 dc voltage
V V V
Average Value o
2
P r
 Charge / Discharge Cycle
t

vo VP e CR

T

Vo VP Vr VP e CR

T
T
e CR
1
CR

T

Vr VP 1 e CR


VP
iL
Vr VP 1 1
T

R CR
1 VP T V
Vo VP Vr Vr
CR
P
fCR
2 IL
VP
R
IL
Vr , provided Vr V p
fC
 Peak Rectifier : Ripple Voltage

During Discharge cycle t

vo V P e CR

At the end of discharge cycle

T

Vo VP Vr VP e CR

T

Vr VP 1 e CR


Since CR >> T
T
T
e CR
1
CR
 Peak Rectifier : Ripple Voltage

T

T
T
Vr VP 1 e CR
e CR
1
CR
T
Vr VP 1 1
CR
Ripple Voltage VPT VP
Vr
CR fCR
VP
Vr
fCR
VP
IL
R
IL
Vr , provided Vr V p
fC
 Peak Rectifier : Conduction Interval

VP cos t VP Vr

Hence t is small
wt 2
Cos wt 1 ...
2!
t
2
VP 1 V P Vr
2
2Vr
t
VP
When Vr<<Vp, the conduction angle will be small
Deduction
Average Diode Current During Conduction
iD iC i L
iDav iCav I L
iCav i Dav I L

During Charge Qsupplied icav t

iCav i Dav I L
During Discharge Qlost CVr
Qsupplied Qsupplied icav t CVr
Average Diode Current During Conduction
Qlost Qsup plied CVr icav t
VP T VPT
Vr CVr
CR R
VPT
iDav I L t
R
1 2Vr T 2Vr
t
2f VP 2 VP
VPT T 2Vr
i Dav I L
R 2 VP
2 VP 2VP
i Dav I L i L 1
2Vr R Vr
VP
Vr VP i Dav I L
 Deduction

As waveform of is almost right angle r

triangle
Vr VP
iD max 2i Dav
 Observations
Diode current flows for short interval and
must replenish the charge lost by the
capacitor. Discharge interval is long &
discharge is through high resistance
rD RL
Maximum diode current
CdVi
iD iL
dt Assuming that i L is almost constant I L &
CR T

2V p
i D max i L 1 2 2i Dav

Vr
 Example N0 3-9
Consider a peak rectifier fed by a 60 Hz
sinusoidal having a peak value of Vp = 100
V. Let the load resistance R =10 k Ohms.
(a) Find the value of the capacitance C that
will result in peak to peak ripple of 2 V
(b) Calculate the fraction of the cycle during
which the diode is conduction
(c) Calculate the average and peak value of
the diode current.
 Example 3.9

100 Sin 2 60t

10k

Find value of C for Vr=2V (peak to peak)

VP 100
C 83.3F
Vr fR 2 60 10 4
Find fraction of cycles that diode conducts
2Vr
t 0.2radian
VP
=> Diode conducts 0.2
100of
3.cycle
18%
2
 Solution Exp 3-9
Find iD max &i Dav

2VP
i Dav I L 1
Vr
VP 100
IL 10mA
R 10000
2 100
i Dav 10 1 324mA
2
imax 2iDav 648mA
 Full wave peak Detector
In full wave rectifier, the capacitor
discharge for almost T/2 time interval. that
mean ripple frequency is twice the input,
so V
r
V P
2 fCR

VP
i Dav I L 1
2Vr

VP
imax 2i Dav I L 1 2
2Vr
 Applications

Peak Rectifier Peak detector is used for

Detecting the peak of the an input signal for

signal processing systems

Demodulator for amplitude modulated (AM)

signals
.
 Precision Half Wave Rectifier
Super Diode

Normal Diodes VD= 0.7v are used for

rectifier of input of much larger amplitude
then VD

For smaller signals detection,

demodulation or rectification Operational
Amplifiers (Op Amp) are used
 Wave form Generation Limiting
Clamping
Limiter Circuit
Vo is limited between two levels upper (L+)
and lower (L-) thresholds
Figure 3.33 Applying a sine wave to a limiter can
result in clipping off its two peaks.
Figure 3.34 Soft limiting.
 Wave form Generation
Limiting / Clamping
Double Limiter
Clips off both negative & positive peaks
Single Limiter
Clips off only one side of the input peak
Application
Limits the inputs to operation Amplifier to a limit
lower than the breakdown voltage of transistors
of input stage of operational Amplifier

Half / Full Rectifier for Battery Charger

Threshold and limiting
Figure 3.35 A variety of basic limiting circuits.
Figure E3.27
 Solution Ex 3-27
(a) 5 vi 5 v o vi
(b) VI 5 Vo D2 Conduct, D1 cut - off
10
vR vi 5 1 vi 5
10 10 2
1
vo 5 v R vi 2.5
2
(c ) vi 5 V D1 Conducts & D2 is off
10 1
vi 5 v i 5
vR
10 10 2
1 1
vo vi 5 5 vi 2.5

 D C Restorer
The output waveform will have its lower
peak Clamped to O V therefore known
as Clamped Capacitor

Output waveform will have a finite average

value & is entirely different and unrelated
to the average value of the input waveform
 Application
6
2v
4
TXR
4v
0v
4v

DC
Restorers
Figure 3.36 The clamped capacitor or dc restorer with
a square-wave input and no load.
Figure 3.37 The clamped capacitor with a load
resistance R.
Figure 3.38 Voltage doubler: (a) circuit; (b) waveform
of the voltage across D1.
Figure P3.97
Figure P3.98
Figure P3.102
Figure P3.103
Figure P3.105
 4 vi

6
VC

D off
Diode Off V0 Vi Vc
D on vo
0

Diode On Vo 0.7v
 The Voltage Doubler
VP -

C1
D1 VD1 2VP
VP sin t

C1 D1 a Clamp circuit
VP -
DC Restorer

VP sin t
 Special Diode Type
Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD)
Shottky-Barrier Diode is formed by bringing
metal into contact with a moderately doped
n type semiconductor material

Resulting in flow of the conducting current

in one direction from metal anode to the
semiconductor cathode and acts as an
open circuit in the other direction
 Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD)

Gets two important properties

SBD switches on-off faster due to current

conducts due to majority carrier b (electrons)

Forward voltage drop is lower then P-n

junction diode
 Varactor
Variable Capacitor
Depletion layer acts as junction capacitance
Depletion layer varies Capacitance

Depletion Region
D

Metallic Plate Dielectric

Used for voltage controlled Tuning Circuit
 Varactor
When a reverse voltage is applied to a p-n junction , the
depletion region, is essentially devoid of carriers and
behaves as the dielectric of a capacitor.

The depletion region increases as reverse voltage across it

increases; and since capacitance varies inversely as
dielectric thickness, the junction capacitance will decrease
as the voltage across the p-n junction increases.

By varying the reverse voltage across a p-n junction the

junction capacitance can be varied .
 Semiconductor diodes
The tunnel diode, the current through the device
decreases as the voltage is increased within a certain
range; this property, known as negative resistance,
makes it useful as an amplifier.

Gunn diodes are negative-resistance diodes that are

the basis of some microwave oscillators.

Light-sensitive or photosensitive diodes can be used to

measure illumination; the voltage drop across them
depends on the amount of light that strikes them.
 SCR (Thyristor)
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is simply a
conventional rectifier controlled by a gate signal.

A gate signal controls the rectifier conduction.

The rectifier circuit (anode-cathode) has a low forward

resistance and a high reverse resistance.

It is controlled from an off state (high resistance) to the on

state (low resistance) by a signal applied to the third terminal,
the gate.

Most SCR applications are in power switching, phase control,

chopper, and inverter circuits.
 Photodiode
If reversed biased PN junction is exposed to
incident light the photons impacting the
junction cause covalent bond to break
thus give rise to current known as a
photocurrent & is proportional to the
intensity of incident light.

Converts Light energy into a electrical

signals
 Photodiode
Photodiode are manufactured using
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Photodiodes are important element of

optoelectronics or photonics circuit
(Combination of Electronics & optics) used
for signal processing, storage &
transmission
 Photodiode : Applications
Fiber optics Transmission of telephonic & TV
signals

Opto-storage are CD ROM computer disks

Wide bandwidth & low signal attenuation.

Solar Cell light energy into Electrical energy

 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Inverse of Photodiode

Converts a forward biased current into light

GaAs used for manufacturing LEDs

Used as electronics displays

Coherent light into a narrow bandwidth laser diodes

Fiber Optics & CD ROM

LED
Double heterostructure laser
 Optoisolator
LED & Photodiode
Electrical to light Light to electrical

Provides complete electrical isolation between electrical circuits

Reduces the effects of electrical interference on signal being

fixed within a system

Reduces risk of shock

Can be implemented over long distance fiber optics

communication links
Laser Pointer
.
Laser Microphone
End
 Problem 3-103
Sketch and label the transfer
Characteristics of the circuit shown over a
+ 10 V range of the input signal. All
diodes are VD =0.7 V @ 1 mA with n=1.

What are the slopes of the characteristic

at the extreme + 10 V levels?
 +1 V

Vi

V0

-2 V -2 V
 Problem 3-103

0 Vi 1 Vo 0
 Ist Sessional
Q No 1 (12 Marks) In the circuit shown, input voltage is
a 1kHz, 10 V peak to peak sine wave. The diode is an
ideal diode.
(a) Sketch the waveform resulting at output
terminal vO.
(b) What are its positive and negative peak
values?
 Ist Sessional
Q No 2 (15 Marks) A circuit utilizes three identical
diodes connected in series having n=1 and IS= 10-14
A.
(a) Find the value of current required to
obtain an output voltage of 2 V across the three
diodes combined.
(b) If a current of 1 mA is drawn away from
the output terminal by a load
(i) What is the change in output voltage?
(ii) What is the value of the load?
 Ist Sessional
Q No 3 (13 Marks) For the circuit shown,
sketch the output for the sine wave input of 10
volts peak. Label the positive and negative peak
values assuming that CR >>T.
 Ist Sessional
Q No 4 (10 Marks) 9.25 V zener diode
exhibits its nominal voltage at a test
current of 28 mA. At this current the
incremental resistance is specified as 7
ohms.
(a) Find VZO of the zener model.
(b) Find the zener voltage at a current of
10 mA.
 Ist Sessional
Q No 5 (20 Marks) Consider a bridge rectifier
circuit with a filter capacitor C placed across the
load resistor R for the case in which the transformer
secondary delivers a sinusoid of 12 V (rms) having
the 60 Hz frequency and assuming VD = 0.8 V and
a load resistance of 100 ohms.
Find the value of C that results in a ripple voltage no
larger than 1 V peak to peak.
Find the diode conduction angle.
Find the load current.
What is the average load current?
 Ist Sessional

Q No 6 (10 Marks) In a circuit shown, the output

voltage is 2.4 V. Assuming that the diodes are
identical and are having 0.7 V drop at 1mA.
(a) Find the current following through the resistor R.
(b) What the value of resistor R.
Figure 3.31 The superdiode precision half-wave rectifier and its almost-ideal transfer characteristic. Note that when vI > 0
and the diode conducts, the op amp supplies the load current, and the source is conveniently buffered, an added advantage. Not
shown are the op-amp power supplies.
Figure P3.82
Figure P3.91
Figure P3.92
Figure P3.93
Figure P3.105
Figure P3.105
 Quiz DE28 EE -B

(10 Marks) 9.25 V zener diode exhibits its

nominal voltage at a test current of 28 mA.
At this current the incremental resistance is
specified as 7 ohms.
(a) Find VZO of the zener model.
(b) Find the zener voltage at a current of
10 mA.
 Quiz DE 28 EE -A
A zener diode whose nominal voltage is
10 V at 10 mA has an incremental
resistance of 50 .

(a) What is the value of VZO of the zener

model?
(b) What voltage do you expect if the diode
current is doubled?