X Ray Film, Characteristics & Film Processing

Rakesh
 Introduction

X-ray films are the most important

material used to decode the
information carried by the
attenuated x-ray beam, when they
are made to pass through the tissue
They capture the invisible image into
visible form.
X-ray Film

Main part of a X-ray film is a

radiation-sensitive, photographically
active material made in the form of
emulsion quoted on the supporting
material called base.
 Types of Films
Basis of coating:
Single Emulsion Based on
Double Emulsion sensitivity
Blue sensitive films
Based on use of Green sensitive
screens films
Non Screen type Panchromatic films
Screen type
Single screen
Double Screen
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
Some History
Photography began before x-rays were
discovered
Certain silver compounds react to light
making image production possible
These images could be made permanent
by treatment with certain chemicals
This phenomenon was applied to x-ray
procedures
More History
In 1812, silhouettes were recorded on glass
plates
In 1819, the solvent action of sodium
thiosulfate on silver chloride was
discovered
In 1839, the phenomenon of development
was discovered by Louis Daguerre
One year later, it was discovered that
treating exposed silver chloride paper with
sodium chloride would make the image
permanent
Even More History
By the time x-rays were discovered,
photography was already an art
Photographic film with a nitrocellulose
base was already being marketed by
George Eastman
The first x-rays were recorded on glass
plates
These were coated with emulsion on one
side only
The exposure dose was quite high
Glass plates were used up until WWI
And, Finally
During WWI, nitrocelluose based film was
found to be a more feasible choice for recording
x-rays
This film was single-emulsion
It was later discovered that double-emulsion
responded to x-rays faster
The flaw with nitrocellulose-based film was its
easy flammability
In 1924, cellulose triacetate replaced the
nitrocellulose based film
In 1960, the first medical radiographic film using
a polyester base was introduced.
Base
Supports the fragile photographic
emulsion.
Film Base Requirements
Clear with low light absorption - should
not produce visible pattern on the
radiograph
Strength, thickness and flexibility of the
base must allow for ease of developing
Must have Dimensional Stability:
Maintain size and shape during
processing, handling and storage.
Low flammability
Types of Bases
1. Glass Plates Used in past, thin layer of
emulsion on one side.
2. Cellulose Nitrate Used in 1914,
inflammable Caused fire accidents.
3. Cellulose Tri acetate Adopted in 1924
Non inflammable.
4. Polyester Adopted in 1960.
Better dimensional stability and colorless.
Dimethyl terepthalate(DMT) and ethylene glycol
are brought together under low pressure and high
temperature to form molten polymer, stretched
into sheets.
Eg. Cronex
Tinted blue film

Triacetate and Polyester are clear and

colorless.
Adopted in 1933, blue tint was added
to the x-ray film in an effort to produce
a film that was easier to look at.
Causes less eye strain.
Blue tint can be added to either to the
base or to the emulsion.
All present x ray films are blue tinted.
Emulsion
Photosensitive
Layer of the film.
Key ingredients:
Gelatin
Silver Halide
Thickness not more
than 0.5 mils ( 5-25
m.)
Gelatin
Produced from Cattle bones.
Advantages:
-Keeps Silver Halide grains
Well dispersed
Prevents Clumping of grains
-Developing solutions can penetrate Gelatin
rapidly without damaging the structure and
strength.
- Easily available in large and uniform
quantity.
Silver Halide
Light sensitive material in emulsion.
Composition:
90-99% Silver Bromide
1-10% Silver Iodide - it increases sensitivity
Silver Iodo-Bromide crystals are precipitated
and emulsified in Gelatin
Precipitation reaction involves addition of
Silver Nitrate to Soluble Halide to form
soluble silver halide.
AgNO3 + KBr AgBr + KnO3
 The Silver Iodo-Bromide crystals in the
emulsion is in the form of crystals
suspended in gelatin.
Crystals are formed by Ions of Ag+, Br-,
I- arranged in Cubic Lattice.
 Crystal lattice
Crystal is formed by
Ag+ Br- and I-
Crystal size will vary
from 1.0 to 1.5
microns in diameter.
Each cubic
centimeter of
Emulsion contains 6.3
x 109 crystals.
1 grain averages 1 -
10 million silver ions
 An Imperfect
Crystal (perfect
crystal has
almost no
photographic
sensitivity).
Several types of
crystal defects
noted.

Silver Iodo Bromide Crystals

Crystal Defects

A Point defect
consists of a Silver
Ion that has moved
out of its normal
position in crystal
lattice (Interstitial
Ions).
Crystal Defects

A dislocation is a
line imperfection in
the crystal.
Cause a strain in
the wall structure.
Iodine ion strains
the crystal in this
way
 Chemical sensitization
Chemical sensitization of the crystals
are produced by adding
allythiourea, a sulfur containing
compound to the emulsion , which
reacts with silver halide to form silver
sulfide.
Sensitization
Sensitivity
Speck

This Silver
Sulphide is
usually located
on surface of
the crystals and
is referred as
sensitivity
speck.
 Sensitivity
speck by
Silver
sulfide

Point defect
in cubic
lattice.

The sensitivity speck traps electron and form

latent image.
The Latent Image
Remnant radiation interacts with the silver
halide crystals
Mainly by the photoelectric interaction
The energy deposited into the film is in the same
pattern as the subject that was exposed to
radiation
This invisible image is known as the latent
image

A latent image on photographic (radiographic)

film is an invisible image produced by the
exposure of the film to light (radiation).
The Manifest Image
By chemically processing the latent
image it is made visible
Certain chemicals permanently
fixate the image onto the film
 Manifest
Image
(visible)
Latent
Image
(invisible)
Formation of Latent
Image
Metallic silver is black, so it is this
metallic silver that produces black
areas on a developed films.
Exposure of silver-iodo-bromide
grains to light photons emitted by
screen / direct x-ray exposure
initiates the formation of atomic
silver to form a visible pattern.
Gurney Mott hypothesis

This process repeats

 Negative
Bromine Ions
lose electron to
form bromine
Atoms leaves
the crystal and
diffuses into
Gelatin.
Latent Image Formation: Gurney-Mott

Light photon
absorbed
by/ejectstrapped
Electron Br
electron
at sensitivity
speck
Neg electron
attracts interstitial
Ag+ ion
Ag+ and e -
combine to form
neutral
If >6-10(black)
Ag0 Ag
accumulate at
speck, it becomes
a latent image
center: ie, it is
Direct X-Ray Exposure of Film

Photoelectric & Compton interactions

in film (silver halide in the emulsion)
Liberated electrons have long ranges
These electrons strip other electrons
from Bromide ion
Bromine atoms & free electrons
produced
Electrons captured at sensitivity speck
as before
 Direct X-Ray Exposure of
Film
Efficiency
most photon energy lost
much energy lost in gelatin
only 3 - 10% of photon energy produces silver
sensitivity varies with
kVp (energy)
processing
Film as a dosimeter
20% accuracy
badge include filters of various thicknesses
allows estimate of x-ray spectrum
Adhesive Layer
Firm attachment
between emulsion
layer and film base
is achieved .

Guards integrity
during processing
and fixing.
Super Coating
Thin layer of
Gelatin
Protects the
emulsion from
mechanical
damage
Prevents scratches
and pressure
marks.
Makes the film
smooth and slick
FILM PROCESSING
Film Processing
Series of events after the film is exposed to X-rays

There is another stage in the manual processing

known as rinsing in between development and
 Development
It is the first stage
in processing of the
radiograph.
Amplifies latent
image by
100,000,000!
The primary
purpose: convert the
invisible latent image
into visible form.
Processing initiated at
latent image speck
 Chemistry Of Developer
Development is a process of chemical reduction.
The reduction is achieved by the developer
donating electrons to silver ions in the exposed
silver bromide and iodide grains converting them
to atoms of metallic silver.
Ag+ + electron Ag

The mode of action of developer is not fully

understood but the existence of electric charge
barriers around the halide grains is thought to be
involved.
 Charge Barriers

Both exposed and UNEXPOSED GRAIN

unexposed silver bromide
grains are surrounded by a
negative charge barrier
of bromide ions created by
the excess of potassium
bromide employed in the
synthesis of silver bromide
during the manufacture of
emulsion.
The charge barrier
protects the silver
bromide from attack by
electrons in the developer
solution.
 Charge Barriers

EXPOSED GRAIN
Exposed silver bromide
grains possess a
weakness in the charge
barrier caused by the
presence of neutral silver
atoms, which have
collected at the sensitivity
speck.
This development center
enables electrons from the
developer to penetrate
the grain and reduce all its
silver ions to metallic
silver.
 Development
Silver atoms at
latent image
center act as
catalyst

Grain either
develops
entirely or not
at all
 Constituents Of The
Developer
Replenisher solution:
This consists of:
1. Solvent
2. Developing agents
3. Accelerator
4. Buffers
5. Restrainer
6. Preservative
7. Hardener
8. Sequestering agents
 1. Solvent
Water is the solvent commonly used in replenisher
solution.
This also controls developer activity by diluting its effects.
It has a softening effect on the gelatin, thus allowing the
developing chemicals to penetrate the emulsion and act
on the silver halides.
The presence of calcium salts in the water (hard water)
may form a chalky deposit or scum on the surface of the
film.
More serious would be contamination of the solvent with
dissolved metals like copper and iron. The presence of
only a fewer parts per million of copper could cause
chemical fogging.
In practice, such effects are extremely rare.
 2. Developing Agents
These are the reducing agents, which carry
out the primary function of supplying the
electrons that convert the exposed silver
halide grains to silver.
Characteristics:
1. Selectivity
2. High activity: Selectivity and activity tend to
be antagonistic properties.
An agent with high activity generally has low selectivity and
vice versa.
3. Should be resistant to bromide ions in the
solution.
 No single agent satisfies all these
requirements Modern X-ray developers use a
combination of 2 developing agents phenidone
and hydroquinone known as PQ developer.
Phenidone is a quick acting reducing agent
capable of developing all exposed silver halide
grains. However, its selectivity is low and if
used alone would result in high fog levels.
Hydroquinone requires a strong alkaline
medium for its action. This is more selective
than phenidone but slower in onset of action.
Once its action has begun the development
proceeds vigorously although lightly exposed
grains are not affected by hydroquinone.

Hydroquinone and Phenidone High Contrast

Metol High Speed/Low Contrast/Fine grain
Reaction
Involves donation of Electron by developing agent to
form metallic Silver by Silver Ion (with inactivation of
developing agent and liberation of hydrogen ions )

Alkaline

Medium
 Advantages of PQ developers
1. Tolerant of increase in bromine ion
concentration.
2. High selectivity and low chemical fog.
3. Adequate activity even in low
concentrations.
4. Available in liquid concentrate form.
5. Fast acting
6. Adequate contrast
7. Super additive effect
SUPER ADDITIVE EFFECT
3. Accelerators: PQ developers need alkaline
medium for their action (10 - 11.5 pH).
Includes Sodium Hydroxide, Sodium
Carbonate and Borates.
This alkali is known as accelerator since its
effect is to accelerate the developing
process.
4. Buffers: It has the effect of maintaining
the pH of a solution within close limits.
Normally adequate buffering action is
provided by the carbonates used as
accelerators and sulphides used as
preservatives. Thus no additional buffers
are necessary.
5. Anti-
Foggants/Restrainers
Decrease the formation of Fog (fog is the
development of the unexposed silver halide grains
that do not contain a latent image ).
It also decrease the development of the latent
image.
Anti-foggants permit rapid development of exposed
grains at higher temp with minimized fog
development.
The development process itself produces as a
byproduct potassium bromide which is a very
effective restrainer.
So the developer replenisher need not include
potassium bromide among its constituents.
However it is usual to provide a powerful
restrainer / antifoggant such as benzotriazole.
 6. Preservatives
Sodium sulphite
Oxidized products of developing agents form colored material that can
stain the emulsion, sodium sulphite forms colorless soluble products after
combining with colored oxidized products of developing agents
(sulfonates).
It acts as a preservative by preventing oxidation of hydroquinone by
removing dissolved oxygen in the solution and at the interface.

Sodium Sulphite Coloured product

oxidation
(stain the emulsion)
 7. Hardeners:
Powerful organic hardeners such as
gluteraldehyde which prevent the
excessive swelling of gelatin in the
emulsion when it absorbs water during
development.
If the emulsion is over hardened the
speed with which the developing agents
penetrate the silver halide grains is
reduced.
8. Sequestering agents: Prevent
precipitation of insoluble mineral salts,
which tend to occur in hard water areas.
Compounds based on EDTA are used for
this purpose.

9. Others: Bactericides and fungicides.

 Rinsing
Rinsed for about 30sec in running
water.

Will remove the developer diffused

into gelatin.

Reduces the speed of development.

Replenishment
During development Bromide Ions are released
by the reduction of silver ions to atoms and they
pass into solution to increase Br concentration,
which limits the life of the developing solution.
The purpose is to maintain:
developing agent conc.
preservative conc.
Bromide conc. and
pH at constant level
(during the process of development the developing
agents, preservatives are consumed and H+, Br+ are
increased )
 Development reaction (high
volume)
2AgBr + H2Q + Na2SO3

2Ag + HBr + HQSO3Na + NaBr

Bromide and acid are formed (pH is lowered)

Developer is consumed
Replenisher formulas have a higher pH ,contains no
bromide.

Rate of replenishment 60ml of the developer is

replaced with replenisher for each 14 x 17 inch film.
Oxidation Reaction (low
volume)
H2Q + Na2SO3 + O2

HQSO3Na + NaOH + Na2SO4
pH is raised
No bromide is produced.

Replenisher formulas have a lower pH

,contains bromide and high sulfite conc. to
retard oxidation.
Rate of replenishment 90ml of the
developer is replaced with replenisher for
each14 x 17 inch film (rate is higher to
 Factors affecting development:
1. Constitution of developing solution
2. Developer temperature
3. Development time

1. Constitution of developing
solution: For a particular level of
exposure image density depends both on
the emulsion characteristics and on the
developer activity. The developer activity
is influenced by
1. Choice of developing agents and their
relative proportions.
2. Concentration of developing agents in
solution.
3. pH of the developer solution.
4. Concentration of restrainer and
 Factors affecting development:
1. Constitution of developing solution
2. Developer temperature
3. Development time

2. Developer Temperature: Developer activity

increases with temperature as many other chemical
reactions.
High temperature development: A range of 38-
420C is used which enables 90 seconds or even faster
cycle times to be operated.
Low temperature development: Operated at
around 300C and can still produce very rapid results.
Some developers are extremely versatile and can be
used over a range of temperature requiring different
processor cycle times (ex. a 7 minutes cycle at 20 0C,
a 90 seconds cycle at 300C).
Medium temperature development:
Between 33-370C.
 Effects on the image of
increased temperature:
Slightly raised
temperature causes
increased image density for
the same exposure (thus
increased film speed).
Slightly increased chemical
fog.
Increased image contrast.

More severe raise in

temperature leads to
gross increase in density.
Un-acceptable increase in
chemical fog.
Reduction in contrast.
 Effects on the image of
decreased temperature:
If the temperature
raise is left
uncorrected, the
developer becomes
exhausted resulting in
low density and
low contrast.

A more severe fall in

temperature leads to
gross overall reduction
of density and
loss of contrast.
 Factors affecting development:
1. Constitution of developing solution
2. Developer temperature
3. Development time

3. Development time:
Defined as the time between the entry of a specified part of
the film into the developing solution and exit from the
developing solution of the same part of the film.

Factors determining development time:

(a)Developer activity

(b)Type of emulsion: Developer solution takes longer

time to penetrate a thick emulsion than a thin one.
Non-screen films require longer time.

(c) Agitation of the developer solution: This is not

a problem in automatic processors because of constant
motion of the solution caused by the roller mechanism
 FIXING

It has 4 major functions:

1. To stop further development
Making it acidic
2. To clear the image
by removing the remaining silver halide from
emulsion
3. To fix the image
no longer sensitive to light
4. To complete the process of hardening
of the film emulsion
 Constituents of the fixing
solution:
1. Solvent
2. Fixing agent
3. Acid
4. Hardener
5. Buffer
6. Preservative
7. Anti-sludging agent

 1. Solvent
Water
 2. Fixing Agent
2 agents:
Cyanides
Poisonous
Not generally used.
Thiosulfates - Sodium and Ammonium
Salt (more active) called Hypo.

AgBr + sod. Thiosulfate

Ag thiosulfate complex + NaBr
(water soluble)
3. Acid:
Prevents dichoric fog by inhibiting developing
agents.
Provides a suitable environment for the
hardening agents in the fixer.
Acetic acid is used usually at a pH of 4-4.5.
4. Hardener:
Reduces drying time and prevents physical
damage.
Aluminium chloride and aluminium sulfate (or
Chromium compounds) are used commonly.
5. Buffer:
Prevents sulphurization.
Neutralizes the developer
Optimizes hardener activity
6. Preservative:
Retards decomposition of thiosulphates
Sodium sulphate is commonly used

7. Antisludging agent:
Boric acid is commonly used and this prevents
sludging of insoluble aluminium compounds in
the hardener.
 Washing
Film must be washed well with water after
developing and fixing.
Removes all thiosulfite complexes.
Tap water is a satisfactory washing medium. In a
90 seconds cycle about 15 seconds is allowed for
the washing stage, while in manual processing a
minimum of 10 minutes is advised.
Incomplete wash causes retained hypo to react
with silver to form silver sulfide acquiring brown
colour.
Hypo + Silver

Silver Sulfide(brown) + Sodium sulfite
 DRYING
All the surface water and most
of that retained in the
emulsion should be removed.
The drying medium is dry air
of low humidity, which
accelerates the evaporation
process and reduces drying
time.
Heated air can retain more
moisture than cold air and is
therefore a more effective
drying medium. However, the
excessive use of heat may
damage the film emulsion.
Air temperatures between 40-
650C are commonly used.
Total process of developing in schematic
The Automatic Film Processor
Processor (Top View)
 4 Steps of Processing
Developing formation of the
image

Fixing stopping of
development, permanent fixing
of image on film

Washing removal of residual

fixer
 Systems of the Automatic
Processor
1. The Film Feed Section
2. Transport System
3. Temperature Control
System
4. Recirculation System
5. Replenishment
System
6. Dryer System
7. Electrical System
 1. The Film Feed Section
As a film is fed to the
processor, so the cycle of
events listed below is initiated:
1. Drive motor energized (to turn
the rollers).
2. Safelight above feed tray
extinguished.
3. Developer and fixer replenisher
pumped into tanks.
4. Drier heater energized.
5. Wash water flow rate boosted.
6. Film signal delay timer activated
(audible signal which will sound
1-3s after the trailing edge of
the film has passed the entry
rollers, to let the operator know
that the next film can be fed to
the processor).
 2. The Film Transport
Section
A system of rollers that
moves the film through
the developer, fixer,
washing and drying
sections of the
processor.
Also acts as a
squeegee action to
remove excess
chemicals from the
film.
Make up of the Transport
System
1. Entrance roller or detector roller
2. Vertical or Deep racks (transport
racks)
3. Crossover assembly
4. Squeegee assembly
 1. Entrance Roller Or Detector
Roller
Entrance rollers grab film
and draw it into
developer
Entrance rollers separate
slightly, film passes
between rollers
activating microswitch
controlling replenishment
of chemicals
When film is completely
in developer tank, bell
ring or light flicks on
safe to turn on light
 2. Vertical or Deep racks
(transport racks)
Moves film into
and through
solutions and dryer
Uses a turn around
assembly at the
bottom of the tank
to turn film
direction upward.
 3. Crossover Assembly
Moves film from
developer to fixer
tank and from
the fixer to the
wash tank
Forces solutions
from film back
into the tank it is
coming from.
 4. Squeegee Assembly
Moves the film
from the wash
tank to the dryer
Squeegee action
removes excess
water from the
film.
 Transport System
Entrance (Rollers)
Crossover
Squeegee

Deep
Racks Dryer

Turnaround
 Water System
2 functions:
Washing the film
Temperature
control
 Washing
Removes the last
traces of processing
chemicals and prevents
fading or discoloration.
This enables long term
storage capability
 3. Temperature Control
System
Processing Temperatures
Maintains Developer 35 C
developer, fixer
Fixer 35 C
& dryer
temperature Wash 32-35 C
Dryer 57 C
 4. Circulation or Recirculation
or Filtration System
Agitates developer solution
Removes reaction particles by the use of a
filtration system
Helps stabilize developer temperature.
Agitation and circulation
Agitation keeps solutions in contact with a
heater element in the bottom of the tank and
prevents layering of chemicals
Maintains developer temperature
Heating element is controlled by a thermostat
 Recirculation System
Controlled by recirculation pumps that agitate solutions to
keep them mixed to maintain constant temperature
Circulation of water required to wash residual fixer (12 litres
per minute)
 5. Replenishment
System
Fixer & developer levels drop as films
processed
System replaces lost chemicals
Microswitch of entrance rollers starts
replenishment pump stops when
film exits entrance rollers
 Replenishment System
Typical replenishment rates: 60-70 mls of developer, and 100-
110 ml of fixer for every 14 inches of x-ray film (per 35 x
43cm crosswise film)
Types of Replenishment
Volume Replenishment
A volume of chemicals are replaced for
each film that is processed.
Flood Replenishment
Periodically replenishes chemicals
regardless of the number of films
processed.
 6. Dryer System
Dries the film before its removal for
viewing
If not dry, difficult to hang on viewing
box
Consists of blower, ventilation ducts,
vented dryer tubes & exhaust system
Blower draws in air from room and
passes it over heating coils
Heated air enters ventilation ducts &
dryer tubes & then blows over film
 Processing Rates
Processing Times
Amount of time it
takes a film to go Developer 20-25secs
through processor
Fixer 20
ranges from 45-210
seconds Wash 20
Film manufacturers
determine Dryer 25-30
temperatures and Travel 10
replenishment rates Time
Total Time 90 sec
 Daylight Automatic
Processors
Enable film to be
processed without
need for darkroom
Special cassettes
Increase in department
efficiency, no need for
special darkroom staff
Disadvantages
Cost
Mechanical breakdowns
 Automatic Film Processing:
Benefits
Compact size
Faster
Density and contrast is constant
Time and temperature controlled
Produces dry radiograph immediately
 Automatic Film Processing:
Disadvantages
Artifacts caused by rollers.
Expensive and requires maintenance.
Manual processing required as a back
up in case of break down
 Maintenance
To maintain quality, attention needed
in 3 areas:

1. Quality control
2. Processor cleanliness
3. Basic operation
 DARK ROOM
CONSTRUCTION
 LOCATION
Centrally located
Serviced by hatches
from the adjacent
imaging room
Away from damp or
hot areas
Accessible in terms of
power and water
supply
Adjoining viewing
room
 SIZE
Minimum floor area of 10 sq meter

Ceiling height of 2.5 - 3 meter

Size may be reduced depending

upon the department needs
RADIATION PROTECTION

Walls adjacent to the radiographic

room should be shielded with correct
thickness of the lead all the way to
the ceiling
In the interests of both darkroom
staff and film material alike
1.6 mm lead is mostly used
 FLOORS
Non-porous flooring
Non-slip flooring Asphalt tiles
Chemical resistant Porcelain tiles
Stain proof Clay tiles
Durable & easy to Plastic tiles may be
maintain used in the dry
Light coloured (low- dark-rooms
light working
conditions)
 WALLS/CEILING
Light in colour to reflect as much
light as possible onto the working
surface
Easy to wipe or clean
Covered with chemical resistant
materials
Special paints, varnish, ceramic or
plastic wall
 VENTILATION AND
HEATING
Satisfactory working conditions for the staff
Good film handling and storage conditions
Efficient automatic processor performance
Relative humidity is maintained at around 40-60 %
Room temperature maintained between 18-20 degree
celsius
A minimum of 10 air changes per hour
All of these conditions can be achieved by using a
good air-conditioning system
Alternatively, fairly satisfactory ventilation can be
achieved by using an extractor fan sited higher than
and diagonally opposite a second fan, the latter being
so placed as to obtain fresh and filtered air from
outside.
 TYPE OF ENTRANCE
SINGLE DOOR SYSTEM

DOUBLE DOOR SYSTEM

MAZE TYPE ENTRANCE

LABYRINTH

ROTATING DOOR SYSTEM

DOUBLE DOOR
ENTRANCE
MAZE TYPE ENTRANCE
LABYRINTH ENTRANCE
ROTATING DOOR
ENTRANCE
 Fire Safety
Ideally, all darkrooms should be
provided with an alternative exit,
which should be indicated clearly and
left unobstructed at all times
 DARK ROOM
ILLUMINATION

WHITE LIGHTING

SAFELIGHTING
 WHITE LIGHTING
For inspection & maintenance of cassettes &
screens
Cleaning of work surfaces
Servicing of equipment

Sited close to the ceiling

Moderate in intensity
(60w tungsten, 30w fluorescent )
Preferably centrally placed
More than one switch preferable
Identification of respective switches is
important
 SAFE LIGHTING
DIRECT SAFE
LIGHTING:
Light from safe lamp
directly falls onto the
work surface
Eg. Beehive safelamp
Minimum distance of
1.2 m from the
working surface
Best for loading &
unloading areas
INDIRECT SAFE LIGHTING
Directs the light towards the ceiling
which reflects light back into the
room
Is intended to provide general
illumination of the dark room
Suspended atleast 2.1 m above floor
level
Safe lamp for both direct & indirect illumination
 SAFE LIGHT FILTERS
Sheet of gelatin dyed to
the appropriate colour
and sandwiched between
two sheets of glass for
protection
Used in conjunction with
a 25 W lamp
Extremes of heat and
temperature deteriorates
the filter gelatin
Should be cleaned
periodically
 How Does A Safelight Work?
When white light is passed
through coloured filters,
certain wavelengths (or
colours) are absorbed by
the filters, whilst those
wavelengths, which
correspond to the colour of
the filters will be
transmitted.
Making the correct selection
of safelight filter (matching
the filter to the film), means
choosing a filter, which will
transmit a colour to which
the film is relatively
unresponsive, whilst
stopping all light to which
the film is most sensitive.
 Spectrum Transmission Graph:

Manufacturers produce graphs for their safelights

called spectral transmission or filter transmission
graphs.
Their purpose is to indicate that part of the visible
spectrum, which will be transmitted by the filter,
and so aid the radiographer in matching the
appropriate filter to the type of film in use.
Panchromatic film presents special problems,
since it will have colour sensitivity extending as
far as the red end of the spectrum.
It is thus advisable to process such film in
complete darkness.
SPECTRAL TRANSMISSION
GRAPH
MONOCHROMATIC FILM ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM
 How Safe Is Safe Lighting?
No safe lighting is completely safe; all
films will become significantly fogged if
exposed to safelights for long enough.
This is because safelight filters are not
perfect absorbers of the undesirable
wavelengths and, in truth, all films have
some sensitivity to all wavelengths.
Thus, the intensity of illumination and the
film-handling time must be kept to a
minimum if significant fogging is not to
occur.
Effect Of Excessive Safe Light
Exposure
Two principal
features occur
when film is
exposed to
safelights for too
long:

1.An increase in
gross fog;
2.An overall loss of
contrast.
 DARK ROOM EQUIPMENTS
Automatic processor
Manual process unit
Processing chemicals
Hangers for suspending film
Cassette
Film storage hopper
Loading bench
Cupboards
AN AUTOMATIC PROCESSOR
MANUAL PROCESS UNIT
PROCESSING CHEMICALS
Hangers used for suspending films during processing
CASSETTES
FILM HOPPER FOR THE STORAGE OF UNEXPOSED FILMS
DARK ROOM DRY BENCH SYSTEM
Layout of a typical dark room : ample storage & work surfaces
 HEALTH AND SAFETY IN THE
PROCESSING AREA
ELECTRICAL SAFETY

GENERAL SAFETY

CHEMICAL SAFETY
 ELECTRICAL SAFETTY
All electrical equipments to be sited
well away from sinks & manual
processing units
Adequate earthing of all electrical
appliances
No trailing cables from appliances
Pull-cord switching for lights
 GENERAL SAFETY
MEASURES
The maximum level of safe lighting
consistent with film sensitivity
Adequate ventilation
Second exits for fire safety
 CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Processing chemicals contain many toxic
substances and must always be handled with care.
Staff should always be aware of the harmful
effects of exposure to the chemistry its fumes
through inhalation, ingestion or skin contact.
All staff involved with the handling of film
chemistry should be regularly advised to read
product labels and mixing instructions before
handling solutions.
Safety glasses, facemask, rubber gloves and
plastic apron should be available within the
processing area for each procedure.
Control of substances hazardous to
health (COSHH) Regulations 1988

Make it clear that employers have a

responsibility, in so far as is
reasonably practicable, to prevent or
adequately control exposure to
fumes and chemicals using measures
other than the personal protective
equipment.
Photographic Characteristics of X-Ray Film
Photographic Density
Films response to incident radiation
Tissue absorption

Absorption Photographic
Variations Film Density
Variations
Tissue Absorption
Dependencies
Patient
composition
thickness Beam
energy spectrum
kVp
phase
filtration

Absorption Photographic
Variations Film Density
Variations
PHOTOGRAHIC OR OPTICAL
DENSITY
Measure of film blackness or opacity
PHOTOGRAHIC OR OPTICAL
DENSITY

Opacity is doubled by
an increase in density
of 0.3

Useful densities range:

0.3 - 2.0
50% down to 1%
of light
transmitted
 PHOTOGRAHIC OR OPTICAL
DENSITY
Definitions
Opacity
ability of film to block light
= Io/It
Transmittance
ability of film to transmit
light=It/Io

Higher density
value means
darker film
less light transmitted
Base + Fog
Unexposed film has optical density > 0
(min = 0.12)
Base
The plastic material absorbs small amount of
light
blue dye
OD ~ 0.07
Fog
development of unexposed silver halide grains
OD ~ 0.05
Why Logarithms?
1. Easily represent Input Logarith
large dynamic m
100,000 5
ranges 10,000 4
factors of 10
1,000 3
2. Represent 100 2
physiologic 10 1
response of eye 1 0
to differences in
light intensity Using logarithms the
difference between
3. Densities can be
10,000 and 100,000 is
added the same as the
difference between 10
and 100
Why Logarithms?
1. Easily represent
large dynamic
ranges
factors of 10
2. Represent
physiologic
response of eye
to differences in O.D.=0.3
light intensity
+ O.D. = 0.8
3. Densities can be
O.D.=0.5
added
Plot derived by giving a film a series of exposures, developing the
film, and plotting the resulting density against the known exposure.
Sensitometric
Curve
Other Names:
Characteristic
Curve
H & D Curve (after
inventors Hurter &
Driffield)
Properties:
Base + fog
Dmax
Speed
Contrast
Latitude
Characteristic Curve
Linear portion in mid
densities
Flatter portions at
bottom & top
change in exposure
results in little density
change
Shoulder
flat portion of curve
near top
high exposure & density
Toe
flat portion of curve
near bottom
low exposure & density
Characteristic Curve
Straight Line
region
density
approximately
proportional to
log relative
exposure
Radiographic Contrast
Density
Density difference
Difference
Film
between image
Contrast areas
Depends upon
Subject contrast
Subject
Contrast Film contrast
Subject Contrast Dependency

Thickness
Density
Atomic differences
Energy spectrum
(kvp)
Contrast material
Scatter radiation
 Film Contrast
Dependancy
1. Characteristic curve of the film
2. Film density
3. Screen or direct x-ray exposure
4. Film processing
 1. Characteristic curve of
the film
Film Gamma
maximum slope of
characteristic curve

D2 - D1
Gamma = --------------------
log E2 - log E1

Slope shows change in

film density for given
change in exposure
Ranges from 2.0 3.5
1. Characteristic curve of
the film
Average gradient
slope between
points with
densities at ends of
useful range
usually between
0.25 and 2.0
Average Gradient
>1: exaggerates
subject contrast
typical for x-ray film

=1: no change in
subject contrast

<1: decreases
subject contrast
2. Contrast vs. Density
Subject contrast depends on density
Slope of H & D curve changes with
density

Optical
H & D Curve
Density

Slope of H & D

log relative exposure

3. Direct (non-screen) X-Ray
Exposure
Requires Much Higher Exposure (30mR Vs 1mR)
Lower Contrast
More Scatter Sensitivity (X Ray Film Is More Sensitive To
Lower Kvp X Rays, The Scatter Radiation)
Rare Earth Screens Less Responsive To Lower Energies Of
Scattered Radiation

Direct X Ray Exposure Will Produce Lower Average

Gradient.

Average Gradient Is Maximum When The Film Is

Exposed With Intensifying Screens.
4. Film Processing
Longer time or higher temperature
(up to a point)
increases average gradient (increase
contrast)
increases film speed (increases density)
increases fog (decreases contrast)
Follow manufacturers
recommendations to optimize
processing parameters
Speed

Definition of speed
reciprocal of exposure (in roentgens)
required to produce density of 1.0 above
base + fog

Optical
Density
1.0
B+F
log relative exposure
Speed & Contrast on the
curve
Contrast controls slope of
characteristic curve
Optical Lower
Density Contrast

log relative exposure

Optical Higher
Density Contrast

log relative exposure

Speed & Contrast on the
curve
Speed controls left-right location of
characteristic curve

Optical Slower
Density X Speed

log relative exposure

Optical Faster
Density X Speed

log relative exposure

Latitude
Definition
The range of log relative exposure (mAs)
producing density within acceptable
range (usually 0.25 to 2.0)

Optical 2.0
Density
.25

log rel.
Latitude
exp.
Latitude
Inversely related to
contrast
high contrast = low
latitude
low contrast = high
latitude

Significance
Variation from optimal
technique less critical
higher range of subject
contrasts imaged on single
film (such as chest)
Double-Emulsion Film:
Advantages
Physical advantage
Emulsion shrinks when it dries
Having two emulsions minimizes curling
Photographic advantage
Faster system
Two screens used
DE film 2x contrast
Increase density Increase speed
Each emulsion optimally captures light
produced by its screen
double emulsion film screens
 Double-Emulsion Film
Why use 2 thin emulsions rather than 1 thicker one?

Light photons are easily absorbed by the emulsion, however, only the
outer layer of the emulsion is affected by light from intensifying screens.
Light produced closer to emulsion
less light spread
X-Ray X-Ray
Crossover Exposure or
Print Through Exposure
Light from one screen exposes opposite
emulsion X-Ray

Top Top
Screen Emulsion

Film

Bottom Bottom
Screen Emulsion
 Crossover X-Ray

caused by
incomplete
absorption of light
by adjacent
emulsion
poorer resolution
light travels further, spreads
more

can account for up

to 40% of total
 Crossover Reduction
X-Ray

Increase the light absorption

in the silver halide grains of
the film emulsion
use light-absorbing dye on
film base
can reduce crossover
exposure ~ 13%
also reduces system speed
by up to 40%
 Crossover Reduction by
Increasing Light Absorption
Match screen light emission to
silver halide natural sensitivity
1. Yttrium tantalate phosphor
intensifying screens
2. Adding a dye, matched to light
emission of the screen, to the
emulsion
.reduces crossover without decreasing
speed

use flat film grains

.present larger surface to incoming light
.Large surface-area-to-volume ratio
absorb more light photons
Kodak T-Mat film
cuts crossover ~ X2
Transparency vs Print
Why are radiographs viewed as
transparencies rather than prints?

The density of a print is related to the

amount of light reflected or absorbed by the
paper
maximum print density between 1.3 & 2.0
maximum usable transparency density up to
3.0
transparencies offer greater density range
Thank You!!!