Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Display/record signals
Appreciated by human senses
temperature
Pressure etc.
Detect & display/record signals
Outside range of human perception
ECG
EMG etc.
No measuring system is perfect
Can show erroneous values
User should be able to
Identify errors
Rectify them if possible
User should have some knowledge
about working principles of
measuring systems
Components of a measuring system
Detector
Processor
Display
Actuator
Alarm
Feedback
Storage
Patient Sensor Processor
Display
Alarm
E/I = R
E = IR
I = E/R
Resistance
In series : R = R + R
In parallel : 1/R = 1/R + 1/R
Power : 1 J of work in 1 s = 1 W
W = EI
W = E/R
W = IR
Alternating current
Faradays Law
When the flux-linkage between a coil & a
magnetic field is varying, an e.m.f. proportional to
the rate of change of flux-linkage is induced in
the coil.
I = I sin
max
E = E sin
max
a.c. circuit
Current 90 out of phase to Voltage
Current with frequency
resistance changes with frequency = reactance
Reactance - Xc = 1/2fC ohms
Overall opposition impedance (R + Reactance)
Inductance
Unit
henry (H)
When the current through a coil
changes at the rate of 1 A s, a 1 H
coil will induce a back-e.m.f. of 1 V.
V/E =
X =2
L
Photomultiplier
Photocells which have several stages of
internal amplification
Infrared spectroscopy
Thermal detectors
Change in temperature measured with a
Thermopile
A number of thermocouples connected in series
Or
Golay cell
Pneumatic device
Similar in principle to the Luft analyser
Fluorescence
Atomic absorption
spectrophotometry
Flame photometry
Magnetic resonance
Electron spin resonance (ESR)
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
Ultrasound
Transducers are made from materials displaying
piezo-electric effect
Most from ceramic materials containing lead
zirconate & lead titanate
Transforms mechanical to electrical energy & vice
versa
US is generated by applying a high frequency
alternating potential difference to the two sides of the
transducer which changes its thickness & produces the
US radiation of the same frequency as the applied
voltage
Thickness determines the operating frequency & must
be matched to the alternating voltage which excites it
Magnetorestrictive transducers less efficient
Doppler instrument
Separate transmitting & receiving
crystals mounted side by side in a
hand-held probe
Nuclear radiology
Scintillation
detector
Lead collimator determines size of field
Crystal produces a flash of light when
radiation ( is received
Photomultiplier converts light flash
to an electrical signal
Amplifier
Pulse height selector
Register or CRT display
Pressure transducers
Diaphragm gauge
Methods of sensing diaphragm
movement
1. Direct
2. Optical
3. Electromechanical
Electromechanical transducer
Often called - electromanometer
1. Direct
A thread or lever is attached to
diaphragm
Other end connected to a pointer or
writing arm
Marked inertia
Not very sensitive
2. Optical
Mirror attached to diaphragm
Recorded on a photographic paper
Sensitivity can be increased by making
light reflect between mirrors on its way
to recorder
Advantages of electromechanical
transducers
Electrical output may be processed in
many different ways
Amplified to sensitivity of instrument
Differentiated to give rate of change of
pressure
Digitalized to facilitate subsequent
processing by a digital computer
Yielding signals which are suitable for
Recording / display
Physical principles of
electromechanical transducers
Displacement transducer
Force transducer
Senses force/unit area
Relationship between applied pressure &
movement of diaphragm is governed by
Stiffness of diaphragm
A relatively stiff diaphragm is necessary
To maintain a linear response
As frequency response is intimately related to
stiffness
Methods for sensing diaphragm
movement
Optical
Optical defocussing manometer
Movement of diaphragm is sensed by
reflecting a beam of light off the silvered
back of diaphragm on to a photoelectric cell.
Exploited successfully for intra
vascular/cardiac pressure measurement
using a fibreoptic bundle
Has a high frequency response & completely
eliminates risk of microshock
Wire strain gauge
When
a wire is stretched or
compressed it undergoes a change of
electrical resistance due to changes
in length, diameter & atomic
structure of the metal
Output V change in P
Typically 150VkPa20VmmHg) @ 10 V
excitation
Wire strain gauge contd.
Undamped
f- should be >fsencountered
f =
S = stiffness
Reciprocal of S = compliance (volume
displacement/unit p)
M = mass (complex)
e = 1/2
Effective mass actual mass
Damping due to friction(R); R =
Undamped f is highest when v of fluid
minimized
Stiff diaphragm & short, wide & rigid catheter
If f is close to measured fs
Exaggerated amplitude
If f is < measured fs
Attenuated amplitude
If f is > measured fs
No amplitude distortion
Determination of f & damping refer recorders
Damping
Dissipation of energy in an oscillating
system
D = 0.64 best compromise
between speed of response &
accuracy of registration of
amplitude
Phase shift - refer recorders