Chapter 3: The Classification of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

A very basic classification of

all sedimentary rocks is
based on the type of material
that is deposited and the
modes of deposition.
Classification based on grain size

A simple classification of terrigenous clastic rocks and sediment is based

on the predominant grain size of the material:

Grain Sediment Rock Name Adjectives

Size1 name
(mm)
>2 Gravel Rudite Cobble, pebble, well
sorted, etc.
0.0625-2 Sand Arenite Coarse, medium, well
sorted, etc.
< 0.0625 Mud Mudstone Silt or clay
or
Lutite
1
For the purposes of this general classification we will assign the rock or sediment
name shown if more than 50% of the particles are in the range shown. More
detailed classification schemes will limit terms on the basis of different proportions
of sediment within a given grain size.
Classification of Sandstones

Most sandstone classifications are based on the composition of the rock.

Dotts classificaton scheme is used in most courses at Brock.

It is based on the relative proportions of:

Martrix (fine-grained - <0.03mm - material that is associated with the sand grains).

Quartz

Feldspar

Rock fragments (sand grains that are made up crystals of two or more different minerals).
To classify sandstones using Dotts scheme the first step is to determine
composition of the rock.
Point counting is a method whereby a thin section on a petrographic
microscope is examined by stepping across the thin section at equal
intervals and identifying the material (quartz, feldspars, rock fragments
or matrix) that lies immediately beneath the cross hairs. Counting 250
to 300 grains will accurately yield the proportion of each component.
Example Point Count Data:
A first order classification is
Component Number of Proportion based on the proportion of
Grains counted (%) matrix that is present:

Quartz 73 26 % matrix Rock Name

Feldspar 56 20
< 15 Arenite
Rock fragments 34 12
Matrix 118 42 15 - 75 Wacke or
Graywacke
Total: 281 100
>75 Mudstone
Example Point Count Data:
A first order classification is
Component Number of Proportion based on the proportion of
Grains counted (%) matrix that is present:

Quartz 73 26 % matrix Rock Name

Feldspar 56 20
< 15 Arenite
Rock fragments 34 12
Matrix 118 42 15 - 75 Wacke or
Graywacke
Total: 281 100
>75 Mudstone
To classify Arenites and Graywackes on the basis of their specific
compositions the data must be normalized to 100% quartz, feldspars
and rock fragments.

A. Total Rock A. Quartz, feldspars and rock fragments.

Component Proportion Component Proportion1

(%) (%)
Quartz 26 Quartz 45
Feldspar 20 Feldspar 34
Rock fragments 12 Rock fragments 21
Matrix 42 a graywacke
Total: 100
Total: 100

Total Q, F, and Rf: 58

1
Calculated as the proportion of each
component in the total rock divided by the
total proportion of quartz, feldspars and
rock fragments (in this case that total is 58).
The next step is to plot the
normalized data on a ternary
diagram to determine the specific
field in which the data fall.
The next step is to plot the
normalized data on a ternary
diagram to determine the specific
field in which the data fall.
If the proportion of matrix is less
than 15% plot the data and use
Dotts diagram for the
classification of arenites.
If the proportion of matrix is less
than 15% plot the data and use
Dotts diagram for the
classification of arenites.
If the proportion of matrix is less
than 15% plot the data and use
Dotts diagram for the
classification of arenites.
If the proportion of matrix is less
than 15% plot the data and use
Dotts diagram for the
classification of arenites.
 This classification is based on the major component of most sandstones
and provides a basis for a consistent nomenclature for sandstones.

The names can be modified to reflect other components of the rock:

e.g., Calcareous quartz arenite: a quartz arenite with a calcite cement.

Specific types of rock fragments may also be important in determining

the history of the sediment.

Fragments of limestone or dolomite are simply classed as rock

fragments using Dotts scheme.

Such grains break down rapidly with transport so that their presence
suggests that the sediment was deposited very close to the area that it
was produced.
I. Genetic Implications of Sandstone Composition

In addition to providing a basis for sandstone nomenclature, the

composition of a sandstone also indicates something of its history.

a) Maturity of a sandstone

Maturity refers to the cumulative changes that particles go through as it

is produced by weathering and is transported to a final site of
deposition.

Given that the source rocks for many sediments are pre-existing
sedimentary rocks, a very mature sediment may have been through the
rock cycle several times.
Clastic sedimentary rocks
can be made up of
multicycled particles.

i.e., have passed through the

rock cycle several times.

Each time through the cycle

the sediment becomes more
and more mature.
Sediment texture and mineralogical composition all reflect the maturity
of a sediment.
Most changes are related to transport distance, nature of weathering at
the site of sediment formation and number of passes through the rock
cycle.
i) Textural Maturity

Changes in grain size and shape.

Increasing textural maturity

Increased sorting

Increased rounding

Increased sphericity
From: Gomez, Rosser, Peacock, Hicks
and Palmer, 2001, Downstream fining i
a rapidly aggrading gravel bed river.
Water Resources Research, v. 37, p.
1813-1823.

Demir, 2003, Downstream changes in

bed material size and shape
characteristics in a small upland stream:
Cwm Treweryn, in South Wales,
Yerbilimleri, v. 28, p. 33-47.
 The name of a sandstone tells you something of its maturity.
E.g., a Quartz arenite has less than 15% matrix and is better sorted than
a Quartz graywacke.

The quartz arenite is more mature (greater transport distance and/or

more times through the rock cycle) than the Quartz graywacke.

ii) Compositional Maturity

Compositional maturity is reflected by the relative proportion of

physically soft or chemically unstable grains.

The fewer the soft or unstable grains, the more mature the sediment.
What is the relative stability of minerals?

Bowens Reaction series shows the sequence in which minerals

crystallize from a cooling magma.
Mineral stability can also be shown using Bowens Reaction series:

The earliest minerals to crystallize are the least stable.

Quartz is the most stable of the common mineral; it resists chemcial

weathering and is the most common mineral in most sedimentary rocks.

Potassium feldspar is
also common but
Muscovite is relatively
soft and breaks down
during transport.

The stability of rock

fragments varies with
their mineralogy.
The most mature sediment would be made up of 100% quartz
grains.

With increased transport and number of times through the rock cycle
the less stable minerals are lost.

The average igneous and metamorphic rocks contain 60%

feldspars.
The average sandstone contains 12% feldspars.

This reflects the fact that many sandstones are made up of particles
that have been through several passes of the rock cycle.
b) Provenance of a sediment
Provenance: where something originated.
The Provenance of a sediment is inferred from aspects of composition
that reflect the source rock and tectonic and climatic characteristics of
the source area for the sediment.

i) Tectonic setting

The source rock of a sediment and the tectonic setting are closely linked:
the tectonic setting determines the relative abundance of different types
of rock that is available for weathering and the production of clastic
sediment.
e.g., An arkosic sandstone (rich in feldspars) would have a source area
that is rich in granites.
A mountain chain adjacent to a convergent margin (e.g., modern Andes)?

An exposed craton (e.g., the Canadian Shield)?

Not foolproof! These are two very different tectonic settings.
e.g., a sandstone with abundant volcanic and low grade metamorphic
rock fragments.
Island arc setting.
Quartz arenite: sedimentary source rocks; uplifted sediments in an
orogenic belt.

ii) Climate

Climate exerts a strong control on the type of weathering that takes place
in the source area of a sediment; this, in turn, influences composition.

Cold, arid climate: predominantly physical weathering, producing

abundant detrital grains (unaltered mineral grains and rock fragments).

Sandstones produced in such settings will be relatively immature,

depending on the source rocks.
Warm, humid climate: chemical weathering predominates.

Unstable minerals removed from the sediment that is produced by

weathering.

Will produce a more mature sediment than a cold climate.

Plot of the feldspar content

in sands in eastern and
southern North America.
Overall, there is a reduction in the proportion of feldspar in sands
towards the south.

Several factors at work:

Source rocks: in the north are more granitic source rocks whereas in
the south the major source rocks are Paleozoic sedimentary rocks.
Climate: colder in the north so that physical weathering is important,
producing immature sediment.

Many sediments were produced during glaciation which only breaks

down source rocks by physical processes.

Warmer in the south so that chemical weathering produces a more

mature sediment.
Transport distance: the south has many rivers that have transported
sediment over long distances, increasing the maturity of the sands (e.g.,
Colorado River, Rio Grande, Mississippi River).
II. Genetic Classification of sedmentary rocks

Classification on the basis of how the rocks were deposited.

Commonly independent of composition, grain size, etc.

a) Tillite

A rock that is made up of lithified till that was deposited from glacial
ice.
Normally very poorly sorted (mud to gravel-size particles) and the
gravel is angular.
b) Turbidites

Rocks made up of sediment

that was deposited from a
turbidity current.

http://cima.uprm.edu/~morelock/8_image/7turb.jpg

Turbidity currents are subaqueous flows of water and sediment that

flow down slope under the influence of gravity.
Turbidites are characterized
by a particular association
of sedimentary structures.

They may include sediment

ranging from silt to gravel http://cima.uprm.edu/~morelock/8_image/7turb.jpg
in size and have a wide
variety of compositions.

Note that this classification

is independent of
depositional environment:
turbidites may be deposited
in marine or non-marine
settings (e.g., lakes).
c) Storm Beds (Tempestites)

The lithified deposits of

storms influencing a shallow
marine environment.

Independent of grain size or

lithology.
Genetic classification of sedimentary rocks requires a knowledge of the
depositonal setting and cannot normally be made on the basis of hand
specimens alone.

III. Which classification should you use?

This depends on the purpose of the study that you are participating in.

Most studies aimed at determining ancient depositional environments can

classify sandstones on the basis of grain size only.

Studies that aim to reconstruct ancient tectonic settings require a detailed

analysis of the composition of the sandstones.

Some studies require compositional classification in order to understand

the mechanical properties of the sandstone (e.g., if the study aims to
determining excavation costs).
Classification of Rudites
Rudites are classified on the basis of particle shape, packing and
composition.
Conglomerate A rudite composed Rounded clasts may indicate considerable
predominanty of distance of transport from source. The
rounded clasts. significance will vary with the lithology of the
clast (i.e., limestone clasts will become round a
short distance from their source whereas
quartzite will require much greater transport).

http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Assets/Photo_albums/Seven/pages/Conglomerate_jpg.htm
Breccia A rudite composed Generally indicates that the clasts have not
predominantly of angular traveled far from their source or were
clasts. transported by a non-fluid medium (e.g.,
gravity or glacial ice).

http://homepage.smc.edu/robinson_richard/rocktest/igneous_web/pages/breccia.html
Diamictite A rudite composed of
poorly sorted, mud to
gravel-size sediment,
commonly with angular
clasts.
Commonly refers to sediment deposited from
glaciers or sediment gravity flows, particularly
debris flows.

http://www-eps.harvard.edu/people/faculty/hoffman/Snowball-fig11.jpg
Note: in the following the rock names are given for rudites consisting of rounded clasts
(conglomerates) but the term conglomerate may be replaced with the term "breccia" if the clasts
comprising the rock are angular.

Orthoconglomerate A conglomerate in which all clasts Clast-supported framework is typical

(clast-supported are in contact with other clasts
conglomerate) (i.e., the clasts support each
other). Such conglomerates may
have no matrix between clasts
(open framework) or spaces
between clasts may be filled by a
matrix of finer sediment (closed
framework).
of gravels deposited from water
flows in which gravel-size sediment
predominates. Open framework
suggests an efficient sorting
mechanism that caused selective
removal of finer grained sediment.
Closed framework suggests that the
transporting agent was less able to
selectively remove the finer fractions
or was varying in competence,
depositing the framework-filling
sediment well after the gravel-size
sediment had been deposited.
Orthoconglomerate with open
framework.

http://seis.natsci.csulb.edu/rbehl/cong.htm
Paraconglomerate A conglomerate in Typical of the deposits of debris flows or
(matrix-supported which most clasts water flows in which gravel size clasts were
conglomerate) not abundant in comparison to the finer grain
are not in contact;
i.e., the matrix sizes.
supports the clasts.

http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/course_notes/earth/earth390/6.GIF
Polymictic A conglomerate in which Conglomerates that include clasts from a
conglomerate clasts include several wide-variety of source rocks, possibly derived
different rock types. over a wide geographical area or a smaller but
geologically complex area.

Oligomictic A conglomerate in which Suggests that the source area was nearby or
conglomerate the clasts are made up of source rock extended over wide geographic
only one rock type. area.

http://graduate.eas.ualberta.ca/rhartlaub/Rae/QPL.JPG
Intraformational A conglomerate in which Deposition in an environment where muds
conglomerate clasts are derived locally accumulated. Muds were in very close
from within the proximity to the site of deposition as the clasts
depositional basin (e.g., would not withstand considerable transport.
clasts composed of local
muds torn up by currents;
such clasts are commonly
termed "rip-up clasts" or
"mud clasts").

http://www.yuprocks.com/ilist/ic1.html
Extraformational A conglomerate in which clasts Clasts derived from a distant
Conglomerate are exotic (i.e., derived from source.
outside the depositional basin).
Clasts are normally very well
rounded and well sorted.
Classification of Lutites
For our purposes, familiarity with terminology will suffice:

Shale: The general term applied to this class of rocks (> 50% of particles are
finer than 0.0625 mm).

Lutite: A synonym for "shale".

Mud: All sediment finer than 0.0625 mm. More specifically used for
sediment in which 33-65% of particles are within the clay size range
(<0.0039 mm).

Silt: A sediment in which >68% of particles fall within the silt size range
(0.0625 - 0.0039 mm).

Clay: All sediment finer than 0.0039 mm.

Fissility: Refers to the tendency of lutite to break evenly along parting
planes. The greater the fissility the finer the rock splits; such a rock is said to
be "fissile".
Mudstone: A bocky shale, i.e., has only poor fissility and does not split finely.

Argillaceous
sediment: A sediment containing largely clay-size particles (i.e., >50%).

Argillite: A dense, compact rock (poor fissility) composed of mud-size

sediment (low grade metamorphic rock, cleavage not developed).

Psammite: Normally a fine-grained sandstone but sometimes applied to rocks of

predominantly silt-size sediment.

Siltstone: A rock composed largely of silt size particles (68-100% silt-size)

Lutite terms based on
proportion of clay, degree of
induration and thickness of
stratification.
Terminology related to stratification and fissility (parting).